New Imaginations of Youth Agency Boko Haram and the Innovative Gospel of Terror in Nigeria
Main Article Content
Keywords
Boko Haram, Insurgence, Northeastern Nigeria, Islam, Terrorism
Abstract
The study is an empirical examination of the credentials of the Boko Haram as an innovative religious expression driven by socio economic marginalization in the Northeast of Nigeria. It discovered that the Boko Haram is a youth driven sect which, even though embodying the rich history of Islamic fundamentalism in the North of Nigeria, has manifested innovative strategies for confronting the decadent Nigerian state and its political class. Prominent in this case is the ideology of takfir which has led the sect to kill fellow Muslims. The group has also pioneered the ‘gendering’ of Islamic fundamentalism through the use of women as active collaborators and suicide bombers in its later history. Strangely enough, the study discovered an ambivalence regarding the perception of the legitimacy of the sect with a good number of respondents seeing the group as Islamic both in its messages and methods. In conclusion, the study discovered that the Boko Haram has raised salient questions about the political economy of Nigeria that need addressing if resurgence of such conflicts is to be averted. Also, while de-radicalization came up as a means of tackling Islamic fundamentalism in Nigeria, there is need for a nuanced approach that builds on credibility and acceptance of those driving the programme.
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References
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Asuelime, L.E and Ojochenemi, D.J. (2015). Boko Haram: The Socio-Economic Drivers. New York: Springer.
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Borum, R. (2003). 'Understanding the Terrorist Mindset'. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 72:7: 7 - 10. https://doi.org/10.1037/e318402004-002
Campbell, J. (2015). 'Nigeria and the Horror of Boko Haram'. Lecture presented at the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, March 3, 2015. http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/studio/multimedia/2015/50303, Accessed 21 April 2016.
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Cline, L.E. (2011). 'Today We Shall Drink Blood: Internal Unrest in Nigeria'. Small Wars and Insurgencies 22: 273 - 289.https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2011.573399
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Cook, D. (2011). 'Boko Haram: A Prognosis'. Lecture at the James Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, December 16, 2011.
Dalgaard-Nielsen, Anja (2010). 'Violent Radicalisation in Europe: What we know and What we do not know'. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 33: 797 - 814. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2010.501423
Danjibo, N.D. (2009). Islamic Fundamentalism and Sectarian Violence: The 'Maitatsine' and 'Boko Haram' Crises in Northern Nigeria. Monograph of the Peace and Conflict Studies Programme. Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan.
Ejobowah, J.B. (2000). 'Who Owns the Oil? The Politics of Ethnicity in the Niger Delta of Nigeri'. Africa Today 47: 1: 28-47.https://doi.org/10.1353/at.2000.0011
Ellis, Stephen and ter Haar, Gerrie. (2004). Worlds of Power: Religion and Political Practice in Africa. London: C. Hurst and Company.
Galadima, Dan. (2011). 'The Metamorphosis of Boko Haram'. Leadership 24 July 2011. www.leadership.ng/nga/columns/2571/2011/07/24/metamorphosis-boko-haram.html, Accessed 19 March 2013.
Harnischfeger, J. (2015). 'Boko Haram and its Muslim Critics: Observations from Yobe State'. In Boko Haram: Islamism, Politics, Security and the State in Nigeria, pp. 71 - 96. Edited by M. De Montclos. Los Angeles and Addis Ababa: Tsehai. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifra.1770
Hoechner, Hannah. (2015). 'Traditional Quranic Students (almajarai) in Nigeria: Fair Game for Unfair Accusation'?' In Boko Haram: Islamism, Politics, Security and the State in Nigeria, pp. 63-84. Edited by M. De Montclos. Los Angeles and Addis Ababa: Tsehai.https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifra.1778
Isichei, Elizabeth. (1987). 'The Maitatsine Risings in Nigeria 1980 - 85: A Revolt of the Disinherited'. Journal of Religion in Africa 17:Fasc. 3 (October): 194 - 208. https://doi.org/10.1163/157006687X00136
Khuri, Fuad I. (1990). Imams and Emirs: State, Religion and Sects in Islam. London: Saqi Books.
Komonchak, Joseph A; Collins, M and Lane, D.A. (1993). The New Dictionary of Theology. Minnesota: The Liturgical Press.
Kukah, M.H. (1993). Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum.
Last, M. (2009). 'The Pattern of Dissent: Boko Haram in Nigeria 2009'. Annual Review of Islam in Africa 10: 7 - 11.
Loimeier, R. (2012). 'Boko Haram: the development of a militant religious movement in Nigeria'. Africa Spectrum 47:2-3: 137 - 155.https://doi.org/10.1177/000203971204702-308
Moghadam, F.M. (2009). 'De-radicalisation and the Staircase from Terrorism'. In The Faces of Terrorism: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, pp. 277-292. Edited by David Canter. New York: John Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470744499.ch16
Obasi, S.N. and Anugwom, K.N. (2002). Migration, Ethnicity and Urban Violence in Northern Nigeria: A Study of Igbo Traders in Kano. A Revised Project Report Submitted to AFRIGOV, Abuja, Nigeria.
Odey, J.O. (2000). The Sharia and the Rest of Us. Enugu: Snaap Press.
Onuoha, C.F. (2010). 'The Islamist Challenge: Nigeria's Boko Haram Crisis Explained'. African Security Review 19: 54 - 67.https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2010.503061
Perry, A. (2014). The Hunt for Boko Haram: Investigating the Terror Tearing Nigeria Apart. London: Newsweek Insights.
Sahara Reporters. (2014). 'Nigerian Troops arrest three Female Undercover Operatives of Boko Haram'. Sahara Reporters, 24 July 2014.http://saharareporters.com/2014/07/04/nigerian-troops-arrest-three-female-undercover-operatives-boko-haram, Accessed: 15 August 2014.
Sanusi, L.S. (2007). 'Politics and Sharia in Northern Nigeria'. In Islam and Muslim Politics in Africa, pp. 56-78. Edited by B. Soares and and N. Otayek. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230607101_10
Schmid, Alex. (2013). Radicalisation, De-radicalisation, Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review. International Center for Counter-Terrorism Research Paper. The Hague: ICCT. https://doi.org/10.19165/2013.1.02
Sinai, Joshua. (2012). 'Radicalisation into Extremism and Terrorism: A Conceptual Model'. The Intelligencer 19:2: 22-23.
Smith, M. (2016). Boko Haram: Inside Nigeria's Unholy War. London and New York: I.B Tauris. https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755619085
Udoidem, S. (1997). 'Religion in the political life in Nigeria: a survey of religion-related crises since independence'. In New strategies for curbing ethnic and religious conflicts in Nigeria, pp. 152 - 182. Edited by F. U. Okafor. Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
van Bruinessen, Martin. (1995). 'Muslim Fundamentalism: Something to be understood or to be explained away'? Islam and Muslim Christian Relations 6:2: 157 - 171. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596419508721050
Walker, A. (2016). 'Eat the Heart of the Infidel': The Harrowing of Nigeria and the Rise of the Boko Haram. London: G. Hurst and Co.
Williams, P. (1997). 'New measures to ensure an effective separation of state and religion in Nigeria'. In New strategies for curbing ethnic and religious conflicts in Nigeria, pp. 184-201. Edited by F.U. Okafor. Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
Adisa, T. (2012). 'Boko Haram Exposed, How Sect was Formed, Training Details, Why it is Changing Tactics'. Tribune Newspaper, 12 February, 3.
Aghedo, I. (2014). 'Old wine in a new wine bottle: ideological and operational linkages between Maitatsine and Boko Haram revolts in Nigeria'. African Security 7: 229 - 250. https://doi.org/10.1080/19392206.2014.977169
Ali, Tariq. (2003). The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads and Modernity. New York: Verso.
Anugwom, E.E. (2008). ''Contested terrain: economic migration, Islamic sharia law and ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria'. African Study Monographs 29:4: 159 - 181.
Asuelime, L.E and Ojochenemi, D.J. (2015). Boko Haram: The Socio-Economic Drivers. New York: Springer.
Ayoob, Mohammed (2008). The Many Faces of Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Muslim World. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.189346
Borum, R. (2003). 'Understanding the Terrorist Mindset'. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 72:7: 7 - 10. https://doi.org/10.1037/e318402004-002
Campbell, J. (2015). 'Nigeria and the Horror of Boko Haram'. Lecture presented at the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, March 3, 2015. http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/studio/multimedia/2015/50303, Accessed 21 April 2016.
Choueiri, Y. (1990). Islamic Fundamentalism. London: Pinter.
Cline, L.E. (2011). 'Today We Shall Drink Blood: Internal Unrest in Nigeria'. Small Wars and Insurgencies 22: 273 - 289.https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2011.573399
Comolli, V. (2015) Boko Haram: Nigeria's Islamist Insurgency. London: Hurst.
Cook, D. (2011). 'Boko Haram: A Prognosis'. Lecture at the James Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, December 16, 2011.
Dalgaard-Nielsen, Anja (2010). 'Violent Radicalisation in Europe: What we know and What we do not know'. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 33: 797 - 814. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2010.501423
Danjibo, N.D. (2009). Islamic Fundamentalism and Sectarian Violence: The 'Maitatsine' and 'Boko Haram' Crises in Northern Nigeria. Monograph of the Peace and Conflict Studies Programme. Ibadan: Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan.
Ejobowah, J.B. (2000). 'Who Owns the Oil? The Politics of Ethnicity in the Niger Delta of Nigeri'. Africa Today 47: 1: 28-47.https://doi.org/10.1353/at.2000.0011
Ellis, Stephen and ter Haar, Gerrie. (2004). Worlds of Power: Religion and Political Practice in Africa. London: C. Hurst and Company.
Galadima, Dan. (2011). 'The Metamorphosis of Boko Haram'. Leadership 24 July 2011. www.leadership.ng/nga/columns/2571/2011/07/24/metamorphosis-boko-haram.html, Accessed 19 March 2013.
Harnischfeger, J. (2015). 'Boko Haram and its Muslim Critics: Observations from Yobe State'. In Boko Haram: Islamism, Politics, Security and the State in Nigeria, pp. 71 - 96. Edited by M. De Montclos. Los Angeles and Addis Ababa: Tsehai. https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifra.1770
Hoechner, Hannah. (2015). 'Traditional Quranic Students (almajarai) in Nigeria: Fair Game for Unfair Accusation'?' In Boko Haram: Islamism, Politics, Security and the State in Nigeria, pp. 63-84. Edited by M. De Montclos. Los Angeles and Addis Ababa: Tsehai.https://doi.org/10.4000/books.ifra.1778
Isichei, Elizabeth. (1987). 'The Maitatsine Risings in Nigeria 1980 - 85: A Revolt of the Disinherited'. Journal of Religion in Africa 17:Fasc. 3 (October): 194 - 208. https://doi.org/10.1163/157006687X00136
Khuri, Fuad I. (1990). Imams and Emirs: State, Religion and Sects in Islam. London: Saqi Books.
Komonchak, Joseph A; Collins, M and Lane, D.A. (1993). The New Dictionary of Theology. Minnesota: The Liturgical Press.
Kukah, M.H. (1993). Religion, Politics and Power in Northern Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum.
Last, M. (2009). 'The Pattern of Dissent: Boko Haram in Nigeria 2009'. Annual Review of Islam in Africa 10: 7 - 11.
Loimeier, R. (2012). 'Boko Haram: the development of a militant religious movement in Nigeria'. Africa Spectrum 47:2-3: 137 - 155.https://doi.org/10.1177/000203971204702-308
Moghadam, F.M. (2009). 'De-radicalisation and the Staircase from Terrorism'. In The Faces of Terrorism: Multidisciplinary Perspectives, pp. 277-292. Edited by David Canter. New York: John Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470744499.ch16
Obasi, S.N. and Anugwom, K.N. (2002). Migration, Ethnicity and Urban Violence in Northern Nigeria: A Study of Igbo Traders in Kano. A Revised Project Report Submitted to AFRIGOV, Abuja, Nigeria.
Odey, J.O. (2000). The Sharia and the Rest of Us. Enugu: Snaap Press.
Onuoha, C.F. (2010). 'The Islamist Challenge: Nigeria's Boko Haram Crisis Explained'. African Security Review 19: 54 - 67.https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2010.503061
Perry, A. (2014). The Hunt for Boko Haram: Investigating the Terror Tearing Nigeria Apart. London: Newsweek Insights.
Sahara Reporters. (2014). 'Nigerian Troops arrest three Female Undercover Operatives of Boko Haram'. Sahara Reporters, 24 July 2014.http://saharareporters.com/2014/07/04/nigerian-troops-arrest-three-female-undercover-operatives-boko-haram, Accessed: 15 August 2014.
Sanusi, L.S. (2007). 'Politics and Sharia in Northern Nigeria'. In Islam and Muslim Politics in Africa, pp. 56-78. Edited by B. Soares and and N. Otayek. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230607101_10
Schmid, Alex. (2013). Radicalisation, De-radicalisation, Counter-Radicalisation: A Conceptual Discussion and Literature Review. International Center for Counter-Terrorism Research Paper. The Hague: ICCT. https://doi.org/10.19165/2013.1.02
Sinai, Joshua. (2012). 'Radicalisation into Extremism and Terrorism: A Conceptual Model'. The Intelligencer 19:2: 22-23.
Smith, M. (2016). Boko Haram: Inside Nigeria's Unholy War. London and New York: I.B Tauris. https://doi.org/10.5040/9780755619085
Udoidem, S. (1997). 'Religion in the political life in Nigeria: a survey of religion-related crises since independence'. In New strategies for curbing ethnic and religious conflicts in Nigeria, pp. 152 - 182. Edited by F. U. Okafor. Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
van Bruinessen, Martin. (1995). 'Muslim Fundamentalism: Something to be understood or to be explained away'? Islam and Muslim Christian Relations 6:2: 157 - 171. https://doi.org/10.1080/09596419508721050
Walker, A. (2016). 'Eat the Heart of the Infidel': The Harrowing of Nigeria and the Rise of the Boko Haram. London: G. Hurst and Co.
Williams, P. (1997). 'New measures to ensure an effective separation of state and religion in Nigeria'. In New strategies for curbing ethnic and religious conflicts in Nigeria, pp. 184-201. Edited by F.U. Okafor. Enugu: Fourth Dimension.
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Sep 30, 2024
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New Imaginations of Youth Agency: Boko Haram and the Innovative Gospel of Terror in Nigeria. (2024). Utambuzi: Journal for the Study of the Religions of Africa and Its Diaspora, 5(1), 69-85. https://journals.uj.ac.za/index.php/ujsrad/article/view/3417
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How to Cite
New Imaginations of Youth Agency: Boko Haram and the Innovative Gospel of Terror in Nigeria. (2024). Utambuzi: Journal for the Study of the Religions of Africa and Its Diaspora, 5(1), 69-85. https://journals.uj.ac.za/index.php/ujsrad/article/view/3417