Religion and Migration in Iraq: Investigating the Reasons for Return of Internally Displaced Christians to Baghdeda
Main Article Content
Keywords
Iraq, internally displaced persons, Christianity, humanitarian aid, ethno-religious identity, conflict
Abstract
The emergence of terrorist group Daesh in 2014 and the international military campaign against it caused humanitarian crisis and mass displacement in Iraq. About 5.8 million people became internally displaced, and as of 2021, 1.2 million remain in displacement. This article engages with the question of what motivates people to return from displacement to their area of origin. It investigates the role religion played in the decision of internally displaced Christians to return to Baghdeda in the Ninewa Plain, Iraq’s largest Christian town. Based on qualitative interviews, the article examines the factors influencing people’s decisions to return. We find that religion constitutes an important factor influencing the decision to return, within the nexus of other considerations such as economic opportunities, reconstruction, and security. Religion thereby plays a role because of the respondents’ Christian identity, the encouragement to return by religious leaders, and the reconstruction efforts led by the churches.
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References
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Interview with Safaa Bahnam. December 2020.
Interview with Tharaa A. Simaan. December 2020.
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Khedir, H.H. 2015. After ISIS: Perspectives of displaced communities from Ninewa on return to Iraq’s disputed territory. Utrecht: Pax for Peace.
Khedir, H.H. 2020. IDPs in the Kurdistan region of Iraq (KRI): Intractable return and absence of social integration policy. International Migration 59, 3: 145-161.
Koser, K. 2015. Religion and displacement: Focusing on solutions. Tony Blair Institute for Global Change. Available at: https://institute.glo-bal/policy/religion-and-displacement-focusing-solutions. (Accessed on April 4, 2023.)
Lamani, M. 2009. Minorities in Iraq: The other victims. CIGI Special Report. Waterloo: The Centre for International Governance Innovation.
Mahmood, S. 2022. Is military liberation from Daesh enough to return? A case study of Christians’ non-return to the Ninewa Plain in Iraq. Ber-lin: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin.
Marfleet, P. 2011. Displacement and the state: The case of Iraq. In Koser, K., & S. Martin (eds.): The migration-displacement nexus: Patterns, pro-cesses, and policies. New York: Berghahn Books. doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1515/9780857451927-009
Mansour, R. 2019. Why are Iraq’s paramilitaries turning on their own ranks? The Washington Post. February 18, 2019. Available at: https://www. washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2019/02/18/why-are-iraqs-paramilitaries-turning-on-their-own-ranks/. (Accessed on May 12, 2023.)
Marr, P. & I. Al-Marashi 2018. The modern history of Iraq. New York: Routledge. doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429494437
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MI (Malteser International). 2023. Ninewa Return Program in Iraq. Cologne: Malteser International.
Monzer, N. 2020. The humanitarian mandate versus minority protection: A reconcilable dilemma? The example of Malteser International’s Ninewa Return Programme. Master’s dissertation, Humboldt-Univer-sität zu Berlin, Berlin.
Mousa, S. 2018. Overcoming the trust deficit: A field experiment on inter-group contact in Iraq. AEA RCT Registry. Available at: https://www. socialscienceregistry.org/trials/3540/history/37148. (Accessed on May 14, 2023.)
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Taras, R, & R. Ganguly 2010. Understanding international conflict. 4th ed. New York: Routledge.
Villeneuve, D. 2018. Enquêter auprès des Chrétiens d’Irak: Considérations méthodologiques sur un terrain en ‘millieu difficile’. Carnets de géographes 11. doi: https://doi.org/10.4000/cdg.1638
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Yacoub, J. 2014. Ninive endeuillée: Un des berceaux de la Chrétienté. Revue d’éthique et de la théologie morale 282, 2014/2015: 105-112. doi: https://doi.org/10.3917/retm.282.0105
Clausen, M.-L. 2019. Breaking the cycle: Iraq following the military defeat of the Islamic State. Econstore. Available at: https://www.econ-stor.eu/handle/10419/197628. (Accessed on May 10, 2023.)
Costantini, I. & K. Palani 2018. Displacement-emigration-return: Under-standing uncertainty in the context of Iraq. Available at: https:// re-turnandreintegration.iom.int/en/resources/study/displacement-emigra-tion-return-understanding-uncertainty-context-iraq. (Accessed on May 10, 2023.)
Davis, R., G. Benton, D. Al Dairani, M. Gallien, & S. Al-Shami 2018. Home after Isis: A study of return as a durable solution in Iraq. Journal of Peacebuilding & Development 13, 2: 1-15. doi: https://doi.org/10. 1080/15423166.2018.1469425
Displacement Tracking Matrix. 2023. Iraq. IOM UN Migration. Available at: https://dtm.iom.int/iraq. (Accessed on March 17, 2021.)
ECHO (European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations). 2019. European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations – Iraq. Fact sheet. European Commission. Available at: https://civil-protec-tion-humanitarian-aid.ec.europa.eu/where/middle-east-and-northern-africa/iraq_en. (Accessed on May 10, 2023.)
Faily, L. 2016. Social harmony: An Iraqi perspective. LSE Middle East Cen-tre Report 11/2016. London: LSE.
Gaston, E. 2017. Iraq after ISIL: Qaraqosh, Hamdaniya district. Global Pub-lic Policy Institute. August 5, 2017. Available at: https://www. gppi.net/2017/08/05/iraq-after-isil-qaraqosh-hamdaniya-district. (Ac-cessed on May 10, 2023.)
Grisgraber, D. 2017. Too much too soon: Displaced Iraqis and the push to return home. Field Report 11/2017. September 25, 2017. Refugees In-ternational. Available at: https://www.refugeesinternational.org/re-ports-briefs/too-much-too-soon-displaced-iraqis-and-the-push-to-re-turn-home/. (Accessed on May 10, 2023.)
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Halawa, H. 2020. The forgotten Iraq. Policy Paper 2020-7. Middle East Insti-tute. Available at: https://www.mei.edu/sites/default/files/2020-03/ The%20Forgotten%20Iraq.pdf. (Accessed on May 10, 2023.)
Hanish, S. 2009. Christians, Yazidis, and Mandaeans in Iraq – a survival is-sue. Digest of Middle East Studies 18, 1: 1-16. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1949-3606.2009.tb00104.x
Hanoosh, Y. 2016. Minority identities before and after Iraq: The making of modern Assyrian and Chaldean appellations. The Arab Studies Journal 24, 2: 8-40.
Hanoosh, Y. 2019. The Chaldeans: Politics and identity in Iraq and the American diaspora. London: I.B. Tauris. doi: https://doi.org/10.5040/ 9781788316675
Hein, M. 2020. The role of religious actors in rebuilding communities in the Nineveh Plains in post-ISIS Iraq. Master’s dissertation, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin.
Higel, L. 2016. Iraq’s displacement crisis: Security and protection. London: Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights and Minority Rights Group Inter-national.
Höfchen, C. n.d. Wer sind die Peshmerga? Arte. Available at: https://info. arte.tv/de/wer-sind-die-peschmerga. (Accessed on March 3, 2020.)
IILHR, MRG, NPWJ, & UNPO (Institute for International Law and Human Rights, Minority Rights Group International, No Peace Without Jus-tice, and Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization). 2016. No way home: Iraq’s minorities on the verge of disappearance. Available at: https://iilhr.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/6_No-Way-Home-Iraqs-minorities-on-the-verge-of-disappearance_Jul2016_EN.pdf. (Ac-cessed on May 10, 2023.)
IDMC (International Displacement Monitoring Centre). 2018. Nowhere to return to: Iraqis’ search for durable solutions continues. Geneva: In-ternational Displacement Monitoring Centre.
IDMC (International Displacement Monitoring Centre). 2020. Global report on international displacement 2020. Geneva: International Displace-ment Monitoring Centre.
Interview with Ahmed Rifat. February 2021.
Interview with (written answer from) Andy. January 2021.
Interview with Atheer Marcus. December 2020.
Interview with Diyaa Kaju. December 2020.
Interview with Father George. December 2020.
Interview with Ikhlas Mikho. January 2021.
Interview with IP3. January 2021.
Interview with IP6. January 2021.
Interview with IP10. December 2020.
Interview with IP12. January 2021.
Interview with Marwan Boutros. December 2020.
Interview with Najwa Abdallah. December 2020.
Interview with Safaa Bahnam. December 2020.
Interview with Tharaa A. Simaan. December 2020.
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2019. Understanding ethno-religious groups in Iraq: Displacement and return. Geneva: Interna-tional Organization for Migration.
Isser, D. & P. Van der Auweraert 2009. Land, property, and the challenge of return for Iraq’s displaced. United States Institutes of Peace Special Report. Washington, DC: United States Institute for Peace.
Kadhim, A. 2019. Rebuilding Iraq: Prospects and challenges: Reconstruction in Iraq cannot be achieved without universal reconciliation, economic and education reform, and equitable application of the rule of law. The Cairo Review of Global Affairs, Summer 2019. Available at: https://www.thecairoreview.com/essays/rebuilding-iraq-prospects-and-challenges/. (Accessed on April 4, 2023.)
Khan, Z. 2014. Words matter in ‘ISIS’ war, so use ‘Daesh’. The Boston Globe. October 9, 2014. Available at: https://www3.bostonglobe.com/ opinion/2014/10/09/words-matter-isis-war-use-daesh/V85GYEuasEE JgrUun0dMUP/story.html?arc404=true. (Accessed on April 4, 2023.)
Khedir, H.H. 2015. After ISIS: Perspectives of displaced communities from Ninewa on return to Iraq’s disputed territory. Utrecht: Pax for Peace.
Khedir, H.H. 2020. IDPs in the Kurdistan region of Iraq (KRI): Intractable return and absence of social integration policy. International Migration 59, 3: 145-161.
Koser, K. 2015. Religion and displacement: Focusing on solutions. Tony Blair Institute for Global Change. Available at: https://institute.glo-bal/policy/religion-and-displacement-focusing-solutions. (Accessed on April 4, 2023.)
Lamani, M. 2009. Minorities in Iraq: The other victims. CIGI Special Report. Waterloo: The Centre for International Governance Innovation.
Mahmood, S. 2022. Is military liberation from Daesh enough to return? A case study of Christians’ non-return to the Ninewa Plain in Iraq. Ber-lin: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin.
Marfleet, P. 2011. Displacement and the state: The case of Iraq. In Koser, K., & S. Martin (eds.): The migration-displacement nexus: Patterns, pro-cesses, and policies. New York: Berghahn Books. doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1515/9780857451927-009
Mansour, R. 2019. Why are Iraq’s paramilitaries turning on their own ranks? The Washington Post. February 18, 2019. Available at: https://www. washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2019/02/18/why-are-iraqs-paramilitaries-turning-on-their-own-ranks/. (Accessed on May 12, 2023.)
Marr, P. & I. Al-Marashi 2018. The modern history of Iraq. New York: Routledge. doi: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429494437
Mayring, P. 2010. Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse: Grundlagen und Techniken. Weinheim: Beltz Verlag.
McGovern, E., M. Eason, & B. Carter 2009. Iraq’s new reality. Washington, D.C.: The Stimson Center.
MI (Malteser International). 2023. Ninewa Return Program in Iraq. Cologne: Malteser International.
Monzer, N. 2020. The humanitarian mandate versus minority protection: A reconcilable dilemma? The example of Malteser International’s Ninewa Return Programme. Master’s dissertation, Humboldt-Univer-sität zu Berlin, Berlin.
Mousa, S. 2018. Overcoming the trust deficit: A field experiment on inter-group contact in Iraq. AEA RCT Registry. Available at: https://www. socialscienceregistry.org/trials/3540/history/37148. (Accessed on May 14, 2023.)
Müller, H. 2009. Religionen im Nahen Osten. Band 1: Irak, Jordanien, Syri-en, Libanon. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
Ninewa Reconstruction Committee. 2023. Qaraqosh/Bakhdida – restoration process and returnees. NRC Iraq. Available at: https://www.nrciraq.org/reconstruction-process/karakosh-bakhdida-restoration-process-and-returnees/. (Accessed on April 4, 2023.)
NRC, DRC, & IRC (Norwegian Refugee Council, Danish Refugee Council, & International Rescue Committee). 2018. The long road home: Achieving durable solutions to displacement in Iraq: Lessons from re-turns in Anbar. Available at: https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/re-ports/the-long-road-home/the-long-road-home.pdf. (Accessed on No-vember 15, 2023.)
Öhlmann, P. 2021. Ninewa Return Programme survey: Analysis report. Commissioned by Malteser International, April 30, 2021.
Picard, E. 2012. Conclusion: Nation-building and minority rights in the Mid-dle East. In Longva, A.N. & A.S. Roald (eds.): Religious minorities in the Middle East: Domination, self-empowerment, accommodation. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/97890042168 46_016
Riordan, N. 2016. Internal displacement in Iraq: Internally displaced persons and disputed territory. New England Journal of Public Policy 28, 2. Article 10. 17 pages.
Sworesho, E. 2021. Baghdeda, Qaraqosh, Al-Hamdaniya: Three names for one Assyrian city. Providence. March 11, 2021. Available at: https:// providencemag.com/2021/03/baghdeda-qaraqosh-al-hamdaniya-three-names-one-assyrian-city/. (Accessed on April 4, 2023.)
Taras, R, & R. Ganguly 2010. Understanding international conflict. 4th ed. New York: Routledge.
Villeneuve, D. 2018. Enquêter auprès des Chrétiens d’Irak: Considérations méthodologiques sur un terrain en ‘millieu difficile’. Carnets de géographes 11. doi: https://doi.org/10.4000/cdg.1638
Wirya, K. & L. Fawaz 2017. The Christians: Perceptions of reconciliation and conflict. MERI Policy Paper. Erbil: Middle East Research Insti-tute.
World Population Review. 2023. Iraq Population 2023 (Live). Available at: https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/iraq-population. (Access-ed on May 10, 2023.)
Yacoub, J. 2014. Ninive endeuillée: Un des berceaux de la Chrétienté. Revue d’éthique et de la théologie morale 282, 2014/2015: 105-112. doi: https://doi.org/10.3917/retm.282.0105
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Dec 11, 2023
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Religion and Migration in Iraq: Investigating the Reasons for Return of Internally Displaced Christians to Baghdeda. (2023). Journal for the Study of Religion , 36(2). https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3027/2023/v36n2a2
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How to Cite
Religion and Migration in Iraq: Investigating the Reasons for Return of Internally Displaced Christians to Baghdeda. (2023). Journal for the Study of Religion , 36(2). https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3027/2023/v36n2a2