Prevalence, Patterns and Push Factors of Migration in Southern and Western Africa: A Comparison of South Africa and Nigeria
Main Article Content
Keywords
Migration, Push Factor, Migration Patterns, South Africa, Nigeria
Abstract
The study examines the prevalence, patterns, and push factors of international migration in Southern and Western Africa, taking South Africa and Nigeria, respectively, as comparative examples. Scant studies have been conducted that compare the migration phenomenon between these two prominent African countries. This is the gap this study fills. The study employs an explanatory research design and a document analysis approach, relying on secondary data. Data was analysed using discourse analysis. Among other findings, it was shown that while international emigration is prevalent in Nigeria, there is a greater influx of international immigration into South Africa than emigration. The study concludes that the prevalence, patterns and push factors of international migration in South Africa and Nigeria differ significantly.
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References
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Bakewell, O. (2008). “Keeping them in their Place: The Ambivalent Relationship between Development and Migration in Africa.” Third World Quarterly, 29(7): 1341-1358. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590802386492
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Betts, A. (2013). “State Fragility, Refugee Status and ‘Survival Migration’.” Forced Migration Review, 43: 4-6.
Bezuidenhout, M., Hiemstra, L., Joubert, G. and Miemie (2009). “Reasons for Doctor Migration from South Africa.” South African Family Practice, 51(3): s211-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/20786204.2009.10873850
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Ita, E. (2020). “Human Development in Nigeria.” International Journal of African and Asian Studies, 61(6): 40-49.
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Liu, Y., Deng, W. and Song, X. (2018). “Influence Factor Analysis of Migrants’ Settlement Intention: Considering the Characteristics of the City.” Applied Geography, 96: 130-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.05.014
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Okunade, S. and Awosusi, O. (2023). “The Japa Syndrome and the Migration of Nigerians to the United Kingdom: An Empirical Analysis.” Comparative Migration Studies, 11(27): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-023-00351-2
Oluwaseyi, P. and Oluyemi, T. (2022). “Empirical Analysis of the Push Factors of Human Capital Flight in Nigeria.” Journal of Humanities and Applied Social Sciences, 4(1): 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHASS-07-2020-0093
Parrish, R., Colbourn, T., Lauriola, P., Leonardi, G., Hajat, S. and Zeka, A. (2020). “A Critical Analysis of the Drivers of Human Migration Patterns in the Presence of Climate Change: A New Conceptual Model.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17): 6036. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176036
Peberdy, S. and Crush, J. (2001). “Invisible Travellers, Invisible Trade? Informal Sector Cross-Border Trade and the Maputo Corridor Spatial Development Initiative.” South African Geographical Journal, 8(2): 115-123. https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2001.9713727
Quarterly, P., Setrana, M. and Tagoe, C. (2020). “Migration across West Africa: Development Related Aspects.” In Fargues, P., Rango, M., Borgnas, E. and Schofberber, I. (Eds.), Migration in West and North Africa and across the Mediterranean: Trends, Risks, Development and Governance (pp. 270-278). IOM.
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Yarhere, I. and Adeboye, M. (2023). “An Evaluation of Push and Pull Factors Associated with the Emigration of Medical Consultants from Nigeria.” Nigerian Medical Journal, 64(1): 104-114.
Adepoju, A. (2006). “Internal and International Migration within Africa.” In Kok, P., Gelderblom, S., Oucho, J. and van Zyl, J. (Eds.), Migration in South and Southern Africa: Dynamics and Determinants (pp. 26-45). HSRC Press.
Adepoju, A. (2011). “Reflections on International Migration and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” African Population Studies, 25(2): 298-319. https://doi.org/10.11564/25-2-233
Afolayan, A., Ikwuyatum, G. and Olumuyiwa, A. (2008). “Dynamics of International Migration in Nigeria (A Review of Literature).” Paper presented as part of the African Perspectives on Human Mobility Programme.
Africa-Europe Foundation (2022). “Africa and Europe: Facts and Figures on African Migrations.” Africa-Europe Foundation. https://mo.ibrahim.foundation/our-research/data-stories/aef-african-migrations#:~:text=Just27.2%25ofallAfricanmigrantsliveinEurope.&text=14.5%25ofglobalmigrantsin,AfricanmigrantsliveinEurope.
Anene, C., Njoku, C. and Iyala, T. (2019). “The Push and Pill Factors of Poverty: Migration of Nigerians to Europe.” Journal of African Studies and Sustainable Development, 2(1): 58-75.
Anjofui, P. (2018). “Investigating the Push and Pull Factors of International Migration in South Africa: The Case of Cameroonian and Congolese Migrants in Cape Town.” [Unpublished Master’s Thesis]. University of the Western Cape.
Arhin-Sam, K. (2023). “Nigeria.” Migration Control Information. https://migration-control.info/en/wiki/nigeria/
Bakewell, O. and Gunvor, J. (2011). Migration, Mobility, and the African City. International Migration Institute.
Bakewell, O. and de Haas, H. (2007). “African Migrations: Continuities and Recent Transformations.” In de Haan, L., Engel, U. and Chabal, P. (Eds.), African Alternatives (pp. 95-118). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/ej.9789004161139.i-185.38
Bakewell, O. (2008). “Keeping them in their Place: The Ambivalent Relationship between Development and Migration in Africa.” Third World Quarterly, 29(7): 1341-1358. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590802386492
Bashorun, B. (2023). “Migration Trajectories: A Case Study of High-Skilled Youths in Nigeria.” [Unpublished Bachelor Thesis]. Malmö University.
Betts, A. (2013). “State Fragility, Refugee Status and ‘Survival Migration’.” Forced Migration Review, 43: 4-6.
Bezuidenhout, M., Hiemstra, L., Joubert, G. and Miemie (2009). “Reasons for Doctor Migration from South Africa.” South African Family Practice, 51(3): s211-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/20786204.2009.10873850
Bhandari, P. and Chaudhary, I. (2016). “A Calendar Method of Collecting Remittance Use Data in a Remittance-Dependent Setting of Nepal.” Migration and Development, 6(2): 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2015.1129689
Black, R., Adger, N., Arnell, N., Dercon, S., Geddes, A. and Thomas, D. (2011). “The Effect of Environmental Changes on Human Migration.” Global Environmental Change, 21: s3-s11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.10.001
Bond, P., Ngwane, T. and Amisi, B. (2010). Xenophobia and Civil Society: Why did it happen? University of KwaZulu-Natal Centre for Civil Society.
Collier, P. (2013). Exodus: How Migration is changing our World. Oxford University Press.
Connor, P. and Gonzalez-Barrera, A. (2019). “Many in Nigeria, Tunisia, Kenya plan to leave the Country in the Next 5 Years.” Pew Research Centre. https://pewrsr.ch/20sJI1z.
Daly, S. F. (2022). “Ghana must go: Nativism and the Politics of Expulsion in West Africa, 1969-1985. Past and Present, 259(1): 229-261. https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gtac006
De Haas, H., Castles, S. and Miller, M. (2021). The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World (5th Edition). Palgrave Macmillan.
Dimkpa, P. (2019). “Africa-Europe Migration: A Qualitative Analysis of Nigerian Migration to Europe via the Libya – Mediterranean Route.” [Unpublished Master’s Thesis]. Dalarna University Centre for African Studies.
Dinbabo, M. and Nyasulu, T. (2015). “Macroeconomic Immigration Determinants: An Analysis of ‘Pull’ Factors of International Migration to South Africa.” African Human Mobility Review, 1(1): 27-52. https://doi.org/10.14426/ahmr.v1i1.730
Duru, I. (2021). “Examination of the Causes and Consequences of International Migration in Nigeria.” Asian Development Policy Review, 9(4): 180-193. https://doi.org/10.18488/journal.107.2021.94.180.193
El-Khawas, M. (2004). “Brain Drain: Putting Africans between a Rock and a Hard Place.” Mediterranean Quarterly, 15(4): 37-56. https://doi.org/10.1215/10474552-15-4-37
Facchini, G., Mayda, A. and Mendola, M. (2013). “South-South Migration and the Labour Market: Evidence from South Africa.” Centro Studi Luca D’Agliano Development Studies Working Papers, no. 351, April. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2263598
Friebel, G., Gallego, J. and Mendola, M. (2013). “Xenophobic Attacks, Migration Intentions and Networks: Evidence from the South of Africa.” Journal of Population Economics, 26: 555-591. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-012-0455-3
Frontex. (2018). European Border and Coast Guard Agency: Risk Analysis for 2018. Frontex.
Gumede, W. (2015). “South Africa must confront the Roots of its Xenophobic Violence.” The Guardian, April 20. http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/apr/20/south-africa-xenophobic-violence-migrant-workers-apartheid.
Harsch, E. (2001). South Africa tackles Social Inequalities: African Recovery. United Nations.
Hatton, T. (2021). “Emigration from the United Kingdom to the United States, Canada and Australia/New Zealand, 1870-1913: Quantity and Quality.” Australian Economic Review, 61: 136-158. https://doi.org/10.1111/aehr.12218
Hussein, S. and Hitomi, K. (2013). “Xenophobia in South Africa: Reflections, Narratives and Recommendations.” Southern African Peace and Security Studies, 2(2): 2-30.
Inegbedion, R. (2022). Migration and Youth in Nigeria. Yasar University, UNESCO Chairman International Policy Brief, February.
IOM. (2022). “Facts and Figures.” IOM. https://nigeria.iom.int/
IOM. (2017). “UN Migration Agency issues Report on Arrivals of Sexually Exploited Migrants, Chiefly from Nigeria.” IOM. https://www.iom.int/news/un-migration-agency-issues-report-arrivals-sexually-exploited-migrants-chiefly-nigeria.
Isijola, D. O. and Idowu, H. A. (2024). “Pan-Africanism and Xenophobia: Exploring the Paradox.” The Social and Management Scientist, 16(1 & 2): 35-43.
Ita, E. (2020). “Human Development in Nigeria.” International Journal of African and Asian Studies, 61(6): 40-49.
Kabulu, A., Mustapha and Suwaid, Z. (2017). “A Dynamic Analysis of the Relationship between Human Development and Economic Growth in Nigeria.” International Journal of Advanced Studies in Economics and Public Sector Management, 5(1): 01-21.
Kirwin, M. and Anderson, J. (2018). “Identifying the Factors Driving West African Migration.” West African Papers (17). OECD Publishing.
Kok, P., Gelderblom, D. and van Zyl, J. (2006). “Introduction.” In Kok, P., Gelderblom, S., Oucho, J. and van Zyl, J. (Eds.), Migration in South and Southern Africa: Dynamics and Determinants (pp. 1-25). HSRC Press.
Kurunova, Y. (2013). “Factors of International Migration in EU-8.” International Journal of Academic Research, 5(6): 275-278. https://doi.org/10.7813/2075-4124.2013/5-6/B.46
Lee, E. (1966). “A Theory of Migration.” Demography, 3(1): 47-57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2060063
Liu, Y., Deng, W. and Song, X. (2018). “Influence Factor Analysis of Migrants’ Settlement Intention: Considering the Characteristics of the City.” Applied Geography, 96: 130-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2018.05.014
Migration Policy Institute (MPI). (2020). “Migration Information Source – Nigeria.” MPI. www.migrationpolicy.org/country-resource/nigeria.
Mixed Migration Centre West Africa. (2021). “Quarterly Mixed Migration Update.” Mixed Migration Centre. https://mixed-migration.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/qmmu-q1-2021-wa.pdf.
Mokoene, K. and Khunou, G. (2022). “Young Mothers, Labour Migration and Social Security in South Africa.” In Rugunanan, P. and Xulu-Gama, N. (Eds.), Migration in Southern Africa (pp. 144-152). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-92114-9_10
Mutava, M. (2023). An Analysis of Trends and Patterns of Migration in Africa. New South Institute.
Neumann, K. and Hermans, F. (2017). “What Drives Human Migration in Sahelian Countries? A Metal-Analysis.” Population, Space and Place, 23(1): 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.1962
Neumann, K., Sietz, D., Hilderink, H., Janssen, P., Kok, M. and van Dijk, H. (2015). “Environmental Drivers of Human Migration on Drylands: A Spatial Picture.” Applied Geography, 56: 116-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2014.11.021
Nwajiuba, C. (2005). “International Migration and Livelihoods in Southeastern Nigeria.” Global Migration Perspectives 50. Global Commission on International Migration.
OECD. (2019). Migration Data Brief 5: Are the Characteristics and Scope of African Migration outside of the Continent Changing? OECD. https://doi.org/10.0%.
Okafor, C. and Chimereze, C. (2020). “Brain Drain among Nigerian Nurses: Implications to the Migrating Nurse and the Home Country.” International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation, 7(1): 15-21.
Okunade, S. and Awosusi, O. (2023). “The Japa Syndrome and the Migration of Nigerians to the United Kingdom: An Empirical Analysis.” Comparative Migration Studies, 11(27): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-023-00351-2
Oluwaseyi, P. and Oluyemi, T. (2022). “Empirical Analysis of the Push Factors of Human Capital Flight in Nigeria.” Journal of Humanities and Applied Social Sciences, 4(1): 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHASS-07-2020-0093
Parrish, R., Colbourn, T., Lauriola, P., Leonardi, G., Hajat, S. and Zeka, A. (2020). “A Critical Analysis of the Drivers of Human Migration Patterns in the Presence of Climate Change: A New Conceptual Model.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17): 6036. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176036
Peberdy, S. and Crush, J. (2001). “Invisible Travellers, Invisible Trade? Informal Sector Cross-Border Trade and the Maputo Corridor Spatial Development Initiative.” South African Geographical Journal, 8(2): 115-123. https://doi.org/10.1080/03736245.2001.9713727
Quarterly, P., Setrana, M. and Tagoe, C. (2020). “Migration across West Africa: Development Related Aspects.” In Fargues, P., Rango, M., Borgnas, E. and Schofberber, I. (Eds.), Migration in West and North Africa and across the Mediterranean: Trends, Risks, Development and Governance (pp. 270-278). IOM.
Schoumaker, B., Flahaux, M., Schans, D., Beauchemin, C., Mazzucato, V. and Sakho, P. (2018). “African Migration: Diversity and Changes.” In Beauchemin, C. (Ed.), Migration between Africa and Europe: Trends, Factors and Effects (pp. 35-80). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69569-3_3
South African Civil Society Information Service. (2009). www.sacsis.org.za.
Stanojoska, A. and Petrevski, B. (2012). “Theory of Push and Pull Factors: A New Way of Explaining the Old.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283/21360_THEORY_OF_PUSH_AND_PULL_FACTORS_A_NEW_WAY_OF_EXPAINING_THE_OLD#fullTextFileContent.
Statistics South Africa. (2024). Migration Profile Report for South Africa: A Country Profile 2023. Statistics South Africa.
UN IOM. (2024). Key Migration Terms. IOM. https://www.iom.int/key-migration-terms.
UNHCR. (2022). Operational Portal – Nigeria. UNHCR.
UNICEF. (2005). Trafficking in Human Beings, Especially Women and Children in Africa (2nd Edition). UNICEF.
United Nations International Organisation for Migration (IOM) (2020). IOM Definition of Migrant. IOM. https://www.iom.int/aboutt-migration.
Weda, Z. (2012). “Factors Influencing the Migration of Teachers from Zimbabwe to South Africa.” [Unpublished PhD Thesis]. University of South Africa.
World Economic Forum and PwC (2017). “Migration and Its Impact on Cities.” World Economic Forum and PwC. https://www.weforum.org/docs/Migration_Impact_Cities_report_2017_low.pdf.
Xenowatch (2024). “Xenophobic Dashboard: Incidents of Xenophobic Discrimination in South Africa, 1994 – 29 July 2024.”Xenowatch. www.xenowatch.ac.za/statistics-dashboard/.
Yarhere, I. and Adeboye, M. (2023). “An Evaluation of Push and Pull Factors Associated with the Emigration of Medical Consultants from Nigeria.” Nigerian Medical Journal, 64(1): 104-114.
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Prevalence, Patterns and Push Factors of Migration in Southern and Western Africa: A Comparison of South Africa and Nigeria. (2026). Pan-African Conversations, 2(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.36615/39sh1d64
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Prevalence, Patterns and Push Factors of Migration in Southern and Western Africa: A Comparison of South Africa and Nigeria. (2026). Pan-African Conversations, 2(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.36615/39sh1d64
