Linguistic Exclusion in South African E-Governance A Qualitative Study of Xitsonga-Speakers' Access to Digital Public Services
Main Article Content
Keywords
Indigenous Languages, Digital Governance, Xitsonga, Digital Divide, E-Government
Abstract
Digital platforms offer new avenues for public service access, yet indigenous communities like Xitsonga speakers in South Africa face exclusion due to language barriers in e-government and ICT tools. This qualitative study investigates how integrating Xitsonga into digital spaces can enhance access to essential services, revealing that the current systems marginalise indigenous language users, limiting their government engagement. Framed through Decolonial Theory, Language Rights, and Ubuntu philosophy, the findings reveal that the current systems marginalise indigenous language users, limiting their government engagement. The findings underscore the need for inclusive digital policies and platform design to bridge the digital divide. The study contributes to debates on language equity, digital access, and equitable service delivery, offering actionable recommendations for policymakers.
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References
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Laskowska, A., Skowron, Ł., Kozłowski, E., & Laskowski, J. (2025). ‘Bridging the digital divide: The role of proxy users in online purchasing and social sustainability’. Sustainability, 17(3), 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17030112
Lesame, C., & Malatji, E. (2022). ‘The use of South African languages by youth on social media: The case of Limpopo Province’. Communicare: Journal for Communication Studies in Africa, 38(1), 76–95. https://doi.org/10.36615/jcsa.v38i1.1545Journals.co.za+2UJ Press Journals+2UJ Press Journals+2
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Madlome, S. K. (2022). Revitalization of Tsonga identity through indigenous language media outlets in Southern Africa. In R. Tunhuma & T. Chimuanya (Eds.), Indigenous language for development communication in the Global South (pp. 157–174). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781666997071.ch-9
Magro, M. J. (2012). ‘A review of social media use in e-government’. Administrative Sciences, 2(2), 148-161. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci2020148
Makananise, F. O. (2023). ‘Reimagining South African political campaigns through indigenous language posters in the 4IR: A political communication perspective’. Communicare: Journal for Communication Studies in Africa, 42(1), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.36615/jcsa.v42i1.1404
Makgopa, M. (2022). Implications of the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) on the development of indigenous languages of South Africa: Challenges and opportunities. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7492-8.ch009
Malatji, E., & Lesame. C. (2019). ‘The use of South African languages by youth on social media: The case of Limpopo Province’. Communicare, 38(1), 76–95. https://doi.org/10.36615/jcsa.v38i1.1545
Manda, M., & Backhouse. J. (2018). Inclusive digital transformation in South Africa: an institutional perspective. In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance, Galway, Ireland, April 2018. https://doi.org/10.1145/3209415.3209486
Masenya, M. T. (2022). Digital preservation of indigenous knowledge in South African rural communities. In R. Tshifhumulo & T. J. Makhanikhe (Eds.), Handbook of research on protecting and managing global indigenous knowledge systems (pp. 317–336). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7492-8.ch017
Mlambo, R., & Matfunjwa, M. (2024). ‘The use of technology to preserve the indigenous languages of South Africa’. Literator, 45(1), a2007. https://doi.org/10.4102/lit.v45i1.2007
Muhammadjonova, M. (2025). ‘Intercultural communication in translation: The consequences of incorrect translations’. Modern Science and Research, 4(4), 1382-1390.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2013). ‘Coloniality of power in postcolonial Africa: Myths of decolonization. Dakar, Senegal’. Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA).
Ndzendze, B. (2020). The fourth industrial revolution and its implications for African languages. Retrieved from: https://www.usaf.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Keynote-Address-by-Dr-BhasoNdzendze.pdf. Accessed: May 29, 2025.
Ngcobo, S., & Mvuyana, B. Y. C. (2022). ‘Communication and governance in a linguistically diverse human settlement in South Africa’. Journal of Local Government Research and Innovation, 10(2), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.4102/jolgri.v10i2.83Jolgri
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Oladele, O. K., & McCall, A. (2024). ‘Auditory learning: The importance of verbal instruction and discussion’. Journal of Educational Psychology, 116(2), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000456
Olaitan, O. O., Issah, M., & Wayi, N. (2021). ‘A framework to test South Africa’s readiness for the fourth industrial revolution’. South African Journal of Information Management, 23(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajim.v23i1.1284
Oparaugo, B. (2021). ‘Media and politics: Political communication in the digital age’. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Explorer, 1(2), 14-23. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3780554
Pan South African Language Board (PanSALB). (2022). The survival of African languages in a digital era. Retrieved from https://www.pansalb.org/the-survival-of-african-languages-in-a-digital-era/. Accessed June 1, 2025.
Penney, J. (2017). ‘Social media and citizen participation in “official” and “unofficial” electoral promotion: A structural analysis of the 2016 Bernie Sanders digital campaign’. Journal of Communication, 67(3), 402-423. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12300
Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford university press.
Primus, M. (2025, February 12). Opinion: Breaking the digital divide: Why Africa’s future depends on embracing its languages in AI. University of Johannesburg News. Available at: https://news.uj.ac.za/news/opinion-breaking-the-digital-divide-why-africas-future-depends-on-embracing-its-languages-in-ai/. Accessed: May 11, 2025.
Quijano, A. (2000). ‘Coloniality of power and Eurocentrism in Latin America’. International Sociology, 15(2), 215-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580900015002005
Ramose, M. (2015). Ecology through ubuntu. In R. Meinhold (Ed.), Environmental values: Emerging from cultures and religions of the ASEAN region (pp. 69–76). Bangkok, Thailand: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung & Assumption University.
Ranchordás, S. (2021). Connected but still excluded? Digital exclusion beyond internet access. In M. Hildebrandt & K. O’Hara (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of life sciences, information technology and human rights (pp. 244–258). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108775038.020
Saeed, S. A., & Masters, R. M. (2021). ‘Disparities in health care and the digital divide’. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23(9), 61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-021-01274-4
Shutte, A. (2009). Ubuntu as the African ethical vision. In M. F. Murove (Ed.), African ethics: An anthology for comparative and applied ethics (pp. 85–99). Scottsville, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2017). Language rights. In O. García, A. M. Y. Lin, & S. May (Eds.), The handbook of bilingual and multilingual education (pp. 185–202). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118533406.ch11
South African Centre for Digital Language Resources (SADiLaR). (2021). 2nd workshop on resources for African indigenous languages. Retrieved from https://www.sadilar.org/index.php/en/2- general/286-rail-2021. Accessed: June 1, 2025.
South Africa. (2022). Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998. South African Government. Available at: www.gov.za. https://www.gov.za/documents/employment-equity-act. Accessed: May 29, 2025.
Sundani, Ndivhuwo. (2023). ‘South African Indigenous Languages and Digital Technologies: Access, Promotion and Preservation’. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 6, 41-51. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v6i8.1385
UMANG. (2019). One app, many government services. Available at: https://web.umang.gov.in/landing/. Access date: May 28, 2025.
Use of the Official Languages Act. (2012). Government Gazette REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA. Available at: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/35742gon8010.pdf. Accessed: May 28. 2025.
Zia, S. (2025). ‘Digital Colonialism: Reimagining Power, Identity, and Resistance by Decolonizing AI’. Yayasan Drestanta Pelita Indonesia, 129-147.
Adedokun, T. A., & Zulu, S. P. (2022). ‘Towards digital inclusion in South Africa: The role of public libraries and the way forward’. Interdisciplinary Journal of Economics and Business Law,11(4), 127-154.
Ahn, E., & Kang, H. (2018). ‘Introduction to systematic review and meta-analysis’. Korean Journal of Anesthesiology, 71(2), 103-112. https://doi.org/10.4097/kjae.2018.71.2.103
Anstey, G. (2022, November 18). SA’s indigenous languages must all be fully developed and featured in digital resources, a UP professor says. Universities South Africa. Available at: https://usaf.ac.za/sas-indigenous-languages-must-all-be-fully-developed-and-featured-in-digital-resources-a-up-professor-says/. Accessed: May 23, 2025.
Asrini, H. W. (2019, October). Language semiotics of campaign banners and billboards of legislative candidates in Malang. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Community Development (ICCD 2019) (pp. 217-220). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/iccd-19.2019.58
Azubuike, F. C., & Aji, T. C. (2021). ‘Role of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in repackaging indigenous knowledge: A 21st century perspective’. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal), 1–14. Retrieved November 18, 2025, from https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/5226
Balfour, R. (2019). The impact of the fourth industrial revolution on indigenous languages as priorities for teaching and learning in higher education in South Africa. Available at: https://news.nwu.ac.za/sites/news.nwu.ac.za/files/files/Robert.Balfour/Address%202019_10_18.UNISA.Impact-of-4IR-on-indigenous-languages.doc. Accessed: May 23, 2025.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). ‘To saturate or not to saturate? Questioning data saturation as a useful concept for thematic analysis and sample-size rationales’. Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 13(2), 201-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/2159676X.2019.1704846
Brunner, C. (2023). Epistemic violence. In Virtual Encyclopedia on Post- and Decolonial Peace and Conflict Studies, Available at: https://postcolonial-peace.org/encyclopedia/epistemic-violence Accessed: June 1, 2025.
Chandel, A., Lee, R., Newton, C. E. L., & van Gameren, D. (2025). ‘Advancing Spatial Justice: A Framework Integrating Spatial Justice and Spatial Capital’. In R. Rocco, C. Newton, & J. Gonçalves (Eds.). A Manifesto for the Just City (Vol. 4, pp. 38-51). TU Delft OPEN Publishing.
Dawadi, S. (2020). ‘Thematic analysis approach: A step-by-step guide for ELT research practitioners’. Journal of NELTA, 25(1–2), 62-71. https://doi.org/10.3126/nelta.v25i1-2.49731.
Ding, I. (2020). Performative Governance. World Politics, 72(4), 525-556. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887120000131
eCitizen. (2025). eCitizen.go.ke - Government of Kenya services simplified. Available at: www.ecitizen.go.ke. https://accounts.ecitizen.go.ke/en. Accessed: May 28, 2025.Ewuoso, C., & Hall, S. (2019). ‘Core aspects of Ubuntu: A systematic review’. South African Journal of Bioethics and Law, 12(2), 93-103. https://doi.org/10.7196/SAJBL.2019.v12i2.679
Giunchiglia, F., Bella, G., Nair, N. C., Chi, Y., & Xu, H. (2023). ‘Representing interlingual meaning in lexical databases’. Artificial Intelligence Review, 56(10), 11053–11069. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-023-10562-9
Gumbi, P. (2019). ‘IsiZulu is an indigenous African language, and technology in the basic education sector in KwaZulu-Natal’. South African Journal of African Languages, 39(2), 204-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/02572117.2019.1618026
Helm, P., Bella, G., Koch, G., & Giunchiglia, F. (2023). Diversity and language technology: How techno-linguistic bias can cause epistemic injustice. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-023-09742-6
Hietaranta, P. (2014). Understanding misunderstanding: Towards a cognitive view of misunderstandings in translation. In P. Penda, T. Bijelić, & Ž. Babić (Eds.), Going against the grain: Essays on literary and language studies (pp. 215–223). Faculty of Philology, University of Banja Luka.
Laskowska, A., Skowron, Ł., Kozłowski, E., & Laskowski, J. (2025). ‘Bridging the digital divide: The role of proxy users in online purchasing and social sustainability’. Sustainability, 17(3), 112. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17030112
Lesame, C., & Malatji, E. (2022). ‘The use of South African languages by youth on social media: The case of Limpopo Province’. Communicare: Journal for Communication Studies in Africa, 38(1), 76–95. https://doi.org/10.36615/jcsa.v38i1.1545Journals.co.za+2UJ Press Journals+2UJ Press Journals+2
Lirola, M. M. (2016). ‘Multimodal analysis of a sample of political posters in Ireland during and after the Celtic Tiger’. Revista Signos, 49(91), 245-267. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-09342016000200005
Madlome, S. K. (2022). Revitalization of Tsonga identity through indigenous language media outlets in Southern Africa. In R. Tunhuma & T. Chimuanya (Eds.), Indigenous language for development communication in the Global South (pp. 157–174). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781666997071.ch-9
Magro, M. J. (2012). ‘A review of social media use in e-government’. Administrative Sciences, 2(2), 148-161. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci2020148
Makananise, F. O. (2023). ‘Reimagining South African political campaigns through indigenous language posters in the 4IR: A political communication perspective’. Communicare: Journal for Communication Studies in Africa, 42(1), 52–63. https://doi.org/10.36615/jcsa.v42i1.1404
Makgopa, M. (2022). Implications of the fourth industrial revolution (4IR) on the development of indigenous languages of South Africa: Challenges and opportunities. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7492-8.ch009
Malatji, E., & Lesame. C. (2019). ‘The use of South African languages by youth on social media: The case of Limpopo Province’. Communicare, 38(1), 76–95. https://doi.org/10.36615/jcsa.v38i1.1545
Manda, M., & Backhouse. J. (2018). Inclusive digital transformation in South Africa: an institutional perspective. In Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Theory and Practice of Electronic Governance, Galway, Ireland, April 2018. https://doi.org/10.1145/3209415.3209486
Masenya, M. T. (2022). Digital preservation of indigenous knowledge in South African rural communities. In R. Tshifhumulo & T. J. Makhanikhe (Eds.), Handbook of research on protecting and managing global indigenous knowledge systems (pp. 317–336). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-7492-8.ch017
Mlambo, R., & Matfunjwa, M. (2024). ‘The use of technology to preserve the indigenous languages of South Africa’. Literator, 45(1), a2007. https://doi.org/10.4102/lit.v45i1.2007
Muhammadjonova, M. (2025). ‘Intercultural communication in translation: The consequences of incorrect translations’. Modern Science and Research, 4(4), 1382-1390.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S. J. (2013). ‘Coloniality of power in postcolonial Africa: Myths of decolonization. Dakar, Senegal’. Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA).
Ndzendze, B. (2020). The fourth industrial revolution and its implications for African languages. Retrieved from: https://www.usaf.ac.za/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Keynote-Address-by-Dr-BhasoNdzendze.pdf. Accessed: May 29, 2025.
Ngcobo, S., & Mvuyana, B. Y. C. (2022). ‘Communication and governance in a linguistically diverse human settlement in South Africa’. Journal of Local Government Research and Innovation, 10(2), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.4102/jolgri.v10i2.83Jolgri
Ohamadike, N. (2025, July 6). Digital technology must speak African languages. The Mail & Guardian. Available at: https://mg.co.za/thought-leader/opinion/2025-07-06-digital-technology-must-speak-african-languages/. Accessed: July 13, 2025.
Oladele, O. K., & McCall, A. (2024). ‘Auditory learning: The importance of verbal instruction and discussion’. Journal of Educational Psychology, 116(2), 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000456
Olaitan, O. O., Issah, M., & Wayi, N. (2021). ‘A framework to test South Africa’s readiness for the fourth industrial revolution’. South African Journal of Information Management, 23(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajim.v23i1.1284
Oparaugo, B. (2021). ‘Media and politics: Political communication in the digital age’. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Explorer, 1(2), 14-23. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3780554
Pan South African Language Board (PanSALB). (2022). The survival of African languages in a digital era. Retrieved from https://www.pansalb.org/the-survival-of-african-languages-in-a-digital-era/. Accessed June 1, 2025.
Penney, J. (2017). ‘Social media and citizen participation in “official” and “unofficial” electoral promotion: A structural analysis of the 2016 Bernie Sanders digital campaign’. Journal of Communication, 67(3), 402-423. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12300
Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford university press.
Primus, M. (2025, February 12). Opinion: Breaking the digital divide: Why Africa’s future depends on embracing its languages in AI. University of Johannesburg News. Available at: https://news.uj.ac.za/news/opinion-breaking-the-digital-divide-why-africas-future-depends-on-embracing-its-languages-in-ai/. Accessed: May 11, 2025.
Quijano, A. (2000). ‘Coloniality of power and Eurocentrism in Latin America’. International Sociology, 15(2), 215-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580900015002005
Ramose, M. (2015). Ecology through ubuntu. In R. Meinhold (Ed.), Environmental values: Emerging from cultures and religions of the ASEAN region (pp. 69–76). Bangkok, Thailand: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung & Assumption University.
Ranchordás, S. (2021). Connected but still excluded? Digital exclusion beyond internet access. In M. Hildebrandt & K. O’Hara (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of life sciences, information technology and human rights (pp. 244–258). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108775038.020
Saeed, S. A., & Masters, R. M. (2021). ‘Disparities in health care and the digital divide’. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23(9), 61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-021-01274-4
Shutte, A. (2009). Ubuntu as the African ethical vision. In M. F. Murove (Ed.), African ethics: An anthology for comparative and applied ethics (pp. 85–99). Scottsville, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2017). Language rights. In O. García, A. M. Y. Lin, & S. May (Eds.), The handbook of bilingual and multilingual education (pp. 185–202). Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118533406.ch11
South African Centre for Digital Language Resources (SADiLaR). (2021). 2nd workshop on resources for African indigenous languages. Retrieved from https://www.sadilar.org/index.php/en/2- general/286-rail-2021. Accessed: June 1, 2025.
South Africa. (2022). Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998. South African Government. Available at: www.gov.za. https://www.gov.za/documents/employment-equity-act. Accessed: May 29, 2025.
Sundani, Ndivhuwo. (2023). ‘South African Indigenous Languages and Digital Technologies: Access, Promotion and Preservation’. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 6, 41-51. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v6i8.1385
UMANG. (2019). One app, many government services. Available at: https://web.umang.gov.in/landing/. Access date: May 28, 2025.
Use of the Official Languages Act. (2012). Government Gazette REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA. Available at: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/201409/35742gon8010.pdf. Accessed: May 28. 2025.
Zia, S. (2025). ‘Digital Colonialism: Reimagining Power, Identity, and Resistance by Decolonizing AI’. Yayasan Drestanta Pelita Indonesia, 129-147.
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Jan 22, 2026
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Linguistic Exclusion in South African E-Governance: A Qualitative Study of Xitsonga-Speakers’ Access to Digital Public Services. (2026). Digital Policy Studies, 4(1), 124-140. https://doi.org/10.36615/kksnwq08
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Linguistic Exclusion in South African E-Governance: A Qualitative Study of Xitsonga-Speakers’ Access to Digital Public Services. (2026). Digital Policy Studies, 4(1), 124-140. https://doi.org/10.36615/kksnwq08
