A Liberal Peace Analysis of the UN Peacekeeping Operations in the DRC Shifting paradigms and Theoretical Misdiagnosis
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Keywords
Résumé
Since its inception in May 1948, the United Nations (UN) peacekeeping operation has evolved through a series of changes in the international security environment to becoming the world’s most formidable multi-national instrument for international security intervention for peace and security. Its operation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is one of the largest operations in the history of UN peacekeeping operations in Africa. Yet, it has been one of the most controversial missions given the fact that the DRC remains mired in relative instability despite decades of the blue-helmet intervention in the country, particularly since the start of MONUC in 1999. UN efforts at ending insecurity and restoring political order in the country have seen a succession of peacekeeping mandates and operational orientations thus informing changing theoretical perspective among scholars. Notable, there is what is perceived as a transition from Liberal Peace to Sustaining Peace operational models and the adoption of these as analytical frames. Despite this tendency towards theoretical bifurcation in the body of academic literature purporting transformation in the context and content of the UN DRC operations, the UN systems’ operational framing reflects more of a continuum than transformation in the guiding framework of action. This paper is conceived to examine the theoretical and operational frames in the discourse of UN mission in the DRC, and their validity in the analyses of UN peacekeeping missions in the DRC. The paper’s adopted qualitative discourse approach finds significant differences in the conceptual parameters for evaluating progress in UN missions and suggests that these gaps be bridged by reconciling theory and practice in contexts such as in the DRC in a changing global security environment.
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Références
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Galtung, J. (1986). The green movement: A socio-historical exploration. International Sociology, 1(1), 75-90. https://doi.org/10.1177/026858098600100106
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Richmond, O. P. (2006). The problem of peace: understanding the ‘Liberal Peace’. Conflict, Security & Development 6.3, 291-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678800600933480
Ibid
ibid
Ibid pg293
Richmond, O.P. (2006). The problem of peace: understanding the ‘Liberal Peace’. https://doi.org/10.7135/UPO9781843313816.002
ibid
Ibid pg300
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Ibid pg300
Ibid pg300
Richmond, O. P. (2006). The problem of peace: understanding the ‘Liberal Peace’. Conflict, Security & Development 6.3, 291-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678800600933480
ibid
Taylor, I. (2007). What Fit for the Liberal Peace in Africa? Global Society 21.4, 553-566. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600820701562785
Ibid pg562
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Paris, R. (2004). At War’s End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790836;
Richmond, O. P. (2006). The problem of peace: understanding the ‘Liberal Peace’. Conflict, Security & Development 6.3, 291-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678800600933480
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Karlsrud, J. (2015). The UN at war: examining the consequences of peace-enforcement mandates for the UN peacekeeping operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali. Third World Quarterly, 36(1), 40-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.976016;
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Paris, R. (2004). At War’s End: Building Peace After Civil Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790836;
Kabua, I. W. (2019). Peace Initiatives in Conflict Management: The Case of Eastern Democratic Republic Of Congo, 1996-2016. Nairobi: United States International University-Africa
Cavalcante, F. (2014), The Influence of the Liberal Peace Framework on the United Nations Approach to Peace-building in Guinea-Bissau; RCCS Annual Review – Open Edition Journals. Vol. 6 Issue no. 6, Pp. 141-161. https://doi.org/10.4000/rccsar.564;
Karlsrud, J., & Oksamytna, K. (2019). Norms and Practices in UN Peacekeeping: Evolution and Contestation. International Peacekeeping, 253-254. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2019.1600637
Clark, J. N. (2011). UN peacekeeping in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Reflections on MONUSCO and its contradictory mandate. Journal of International Peacekeeping, 15(3-4), 363-383. https://doi.org/10.1163/187541111X572728;
Neethling, T. (2011). Toward the End of UN Peacekeeping in the DRC. Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice, 23(2), 191-198. https://doi.org/10.1080/10402659.2011.571608;
Bayo, O. A. (2012). The factors behind successes and failures of United Nations peacekeeping missions: A case of the democratic republic of Congo. Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences, 3(4), 914-32;
Zeebroek, Z. (2008). La mission des Nations unies au Congo : Le laboratoire de la paix introuvable. Bruxelles: Groupe de recherche et d’information sur la paix et la sécurité (GRIP).
Eriksen, S. S. L. (2009). The liberal peace is neither: peacebuilding, state building and the reproduction of conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo. International Peacekeeping, 16(5), 652-666. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533310903303289;
Hansen, C. S. (2012). Building a liberal peace? A critical analysis of South Africa’s engagement in the DRC 2003-2008 (Doctoral dissertation, Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University).
Zambakari, C. (2016). Challenges of liberal peace and statebuilding in divided societies. conflict trends, 2016(4), 18-25
Kumaran, I (2024), Failed pro-imperialist coup targets Democratic Republic of Congo; Available in https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2024/05/23/dkrh-m23.pdf (accessed on 25 May, 2024)
Büscher, Karen, Stephanie Perazzone, Jeroen Cuvelier, Stephane Lumbu, Espoir Rwakira, Paul Bulambo, Chrispin Mvano Yabauma, and Godefroid Muzalia. “Contested ‘commune rurales’: Decentralisation and the (violent) struggle for public authority in the Democratic Republic of Congo.” Global Policy (2024). https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.13309
Chen, Eugene, and Katharina Coleman. “Reinvigorating UN Peacekeeping.” Reinvigorating the United Nations (2024). https://doi.org/10.4324/9781032707648-10
Takwa, SZ, AU-PCRD Head (2010) in conversation with the author (Charles Nyuykonge); Hazikimana, A; 2011 Interview with Author (Charles Nyuykonge)
Obuobi, Patrick Peprah. “From ‘dirty word’to ‘critical enabler’: the evolution of peacekeeping-intelligence.” Journal of Intelligence History (2024): 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/16161262.2024.2345949
De Coning, C., & Peter, M. (2019). United Nations peace operations in a changing global order (p. 334). Springer Nature;
Karlsrud, J. (2015). The UN at war: examining the consequences of peace-enforcement mandates for the UN peacekeeping operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali. Third World Quarterly, 36(1), 40-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-99106-1;
Malone, D. M., & Wermester, K. (2000). Boom and bust? The changing nature of UN peacekeeping. International Peacekeeping, 7(4), 37-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533310008413862
Tull, D.M., 2018. The limits and unintended consequences of UN peace enforcement: the Force Intervention Brigade in the DR Congo. International Peacekeeping, 25(2), pp.167-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2017.1360139;
Karlsrud, J. (2015). The UN at war: examining the consequences of peace-enforcement mandates for the UN peacekeeping operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali. Third World Quarterly, 36(1), 40-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.976016;
Cammaert, P. C. (2007). Learning to Use Force on the Hoof in Peacekeeping: Reflections on the Experience of MONUC’s Eastern Division.
DPO-DFS (2008) United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and Guidelines. The United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Opeations
Peter, M. (2015). Between doctrine and practice: The UN peacekeeping dilemma. Global Governance, 21, 351. https://doi.org/10.1163/19426720-02103002
Karlsrud, J. (2015). The UN at war: examining the consequences of peace-enforcement mandates for the UN peacekeeping operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali. Third World Quarterly, 36(1), 40-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.976016
Peter, M. (2015). Between doctrine and practice: The UN peacekeeping dilemma. Global Governance, 21, 351. https://doi.org/10.1163/19426720-02103002
Wistuba, F., & Cusumano, E. (2017). Preconditions for Success in UN Peacekeeping Operations (Doctoral dissertation, Leiden University).
Karlsrud, J. (2015). The UN at war: examining the consequences of peace-enforcement mandates for the UN peacekeeping operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali. Third World Quarterly, 36(1), 40-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.976016
Müller, L., 2015. The Force Intervention Brigade—United Nations forces beyond the fine line between peacekeeping and peace enforcement. Journal of Conflict and Security Law, 20(3), pp. 359-380. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcsl/krv005
Tull, D. M. (2018). The limits and unintended consequences of UN peace enforcement: the Force Intervention Brigade in the DR Congo. International Peacekeeping, 25(2), 167-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2017.1360139
Karlsrud, J. (2015). The UN at war: examining the consequences of peace-enforcement mandates for the UN peacekeeping operations in the CAR, the DRC and Mali. Third World Quarterly, 36(1), 40-54. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.976016
Grobman, G. M. (2005). Complexity theory: A new way to look at organizational change. Public Administration Quarterly, 350-382. https://doi.org/10.1177/073491490502900305
Burnes, B. (2005). Complexity theories and organizational change. International Journal of Management Reviews. Vol 7 No. 2, 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2370.2005.00107.x
Galtung, J. (1986). The green movement: A socio-historical exploration. International Sociology, 1(1), 75-90. https://doi.org/10.1177/026858098600100106
Quinn, M., Mason, D., & Gurses, M. (2007). Sustaining the Peace: Determinants of Civil War Recurrence. International Interactions: Empirical and Theoretical Research in International Relations, 167-193. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050620701277673
Galtung, J. (1986). The green movement: A socio-historical exploration. International Sociology, 1(1), 75-90. https://doi.org/10.1177/026858098600100106
Hegre, H., 2004. The limits of the liberal peace. Oslo: University of Oslo.
Boutros-Ghali, B. B.-G. (1995). An Agenda for Peace. New York: United Nations;
Nadarajah, S., & Rampton, D. (2017). A long view of liberal and its crisis. European Journal of International Relations Vol. 23(2), 441-465. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066116649029
Richmond, O. P. (2006). The problem of peace: understanding the ‘Liberal Peace’. Conflict, Security & Development 6.3, 291-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678800600933480
Ibid
ibid
Ibid pg293
Richmond, O.P. (2006). The problem of peace: understanding the ‘Liberal Peace’. https://doi.org/10.7135/UPO9781843313816.002
ibid
Ibid pg300
Richmond, O. P. (2008). Reconstructing the liberal peace. Strategies for Peace: Contributions of International Organizations, States, and Non-State Actors. Barbara Budrich Publishers: Farmington Hills, 49-75. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvdf09tx.5
Ibid pg300
Ibid pg300
Richmond, O. P. (2006). The problem of peace: understanding the ‘Liberal Peace’. Conflict, Security & Development 6.3, 291-314. https://doi.org/10.1080/14678800600933480
ibid
Taylor, I. (2007). What Fit for the Liberal Peace in Africa? Global Society 21.4, 553-566. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600820701562785
Ibid pg562
Richmond, O., &Mac Ginty, R. (2013). The local turn in peace building: A critical agenda for peace. Third world quarterly, 763-783. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2013.800750
Eriksen, S. S. L. (2009). The liberal peace is neither: peacebuilding, state building and the reproduction of conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo. International Peacekeeping, 16(5), 652-666. https://doi.org/10.1080/13533310903303289
Mahmoud, Y.; Connolly, L.; Mechoulan, D. (eds.) (2018). Sustaining Peace in Practice: Building on What Works. New York: International Peace Institute
Larsdotter, K. (2019). Military strategy and peacekeeping: An unholy alliance? Journal of Strategic Studies, 42(2), 191-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2018.1559156
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A Liberal Peace Analysis of the UN Peacekeeping Operations in the DRC: Shifting paradigms and Theoretical Misdiagnosis. (2025). Revue Africaine De Science Politique, 12(2), 27-42. https://doi.org/10.36615/8varhm52
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A Liberal Peace Analysis of the UN Peacekeeping Operations in the DRC: Shifting paradigms and Theoretical Misdiagnosis. (2025). Revue Africaine De Science Politique, 12(2), 27-42. https://doi.org/10.36615/8varhm52