Should Should South Africa Embrace a Feminist Foreign Policy to Respond to Gender Inequality?
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Résumé
This qualitative study seeks to critically examine whether South Africa can adopt a Feminist Foreign Policy (FFP) that speaks against biphobia, transphobia, homophobia, sexism, inequality, and patriarchy. The authors argue that South Africa should consider adopting a feminist foreign policy that is gender inclusive of women, children, and gender non-conforming persons. Currently, South Africa does not describe its policy as feminist but rather as having women on the foreign policy agenda, i.e., women’s representation in parliament. We argue that the state has failed to oppose all forms of gender dominance and oppression. During the second Presidential Summit on Gender Based Violence and Femicide (GBVF) in November 2022, President Cyril Ramaphosa reiterated GBVF as the first pandemic in SA, as we continuously see the increase of rape and murders against women, children, and the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex (LGBTI) community. This study, therefore, sought to critically unpack the possibility of a safe and inclusive South Africa for women, children and gender non-conforming persons through the adoption and implementation of a feminist foreign policy. The first country that implemented the feminist foreign policy was Sweden. The goal of Sweden’s policy implementation in 2014 was to address the country’s gender disparity issues, and as a result, they also sought to consider all gender perspectives in all policy creation and decision-making. The researchers reflect on Sweden’s foreign policy from a feminist perspective as possible lessons for South Africa and attempt to clarify South Africa’s position with regard to gender emancipation and whether this could serve as a platform to implement a feminist foreign policy.
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Références
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African National Congress (ANC). 1997. Developing A Strategic Perspective On South African Foreign Policy. http://www.Anc.Org.Za/Docs/Discus/1997/Foreign.Html
Aggestam, K., Bergman Rosamond, A., & Kronsell, A. 2019. Theorising feminist foreign policy. International Relations, 33(1), 23-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117818811892
Aggestam, K., & Bergman-Rosamond, A. 2016. Swedish feminist foreign policy in the making: Ethics, politics, and gender. Foreign Policy Analysis, 12(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/fpa.12133
Angevine, S., 2021. Aborting Global Women’s Rights: The Boundaries of Women’s Representation in American Foreign Policy. Politics & Gender, 17(4), pp.799-826. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X20000112
Baylis, J., 2020. The globalization of world politics: An introduction to international relations. Oxford University Press, USA. https://doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198825548.001.0001
Bergman Rosamond, A., 2020. Swedish feminist foreign policy and “gender cosmopolitanism”. Foreign Policy Analysis, 16(2), pp.217-235. https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz025
Billström, T. 2022. Statement on Sweden’s foreign policy direction. Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs.
Byron, G. and Örnemark, C., 2010. Gender equality in Swedish development cooperation. Sida.
Carlson-Rainer, E. (2017). Sweden is a world leader in peace, security, and human rights. World Affairs, 180(4), 79-85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0043820018759714
Cold-Ravnkilde, Signe Marie (2019). “Contested Norms In Fragmented Institutions: Gender Equality In South Africa’s Development Cooperation.” Progress In Development Studies, 19 (3): 211–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464993419853444
Conway, D. 2008. “The Masculine State in Crisis: State Response to War Resistance in Apartheid South Africa.” Men and Masculinities 10 (4): 422–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X07306742
Egnell, R., 2017. Feministisk utrikespolitik i teori och praktik. Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift, 118.
Englander, D., 2011. Protecting the Human Rights of LGBT People in Uganda in the Wake of Uganda’s Anti Homosexuality Bill, 2009. Emory Int’l L. Rev., 25, p.1263.
Enloe, C., 2014. Bananas, beaches and bases: Making feminist sense of international politics. Univ of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520957282
Foster, S. and Markham, S.A., 2023. Feminist Foreign Policy in Theory and in Practice: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003295617
General Assembly Resolution 1325. “Landmark Resolution On Women, Peace And Security”. (S/Res/1325). August 2008.
Haastrup, T., 2020. Gendering South Africa’s foreign policy: Toward a feminist approach?. Foreign Policy Analysis, 16(2), pp.199-216. https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz030
Haastrup, T. 2013. “Where Global Meets Local: The Politics Of Africa’s Emergent Gender Equality Regime.” In Handbook Of Africa’s International Relations, Edited By Timothy Murithi. New York: Routledge. 103-111. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203803929-13
International Labour Organisation. 2018. Global Wage Report 2018/19: What Lies Behind Gender Pay Gaps International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO
International Labour Organisation. 2018. Global Wage Report 2018/19: What Lies Behind Gender Pay Gaps. International Labour Office. Geneva: ILO
Joachim, Jutta. “What Difference Does A Feminist Foreign Policy Make?”. Clingendael Institute. July 2022. Available At: Https://Spectator.Clingendael.Org/En/Publication/What-Difference-Does-Feminist-Foreignpolicy-Make
Jordaan, E. 2017. South Africa and Sexual Orientation Rights at the United Nations: Batting for Both Sides. Politikon 44 (2): 205–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2017.1284469
Jordaan, Eduard (2017a) “South Africa And Sexual Orientation Rights At The United Nations: Batting For Both Sides”. Politikon, 44 (2): 205-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2017.1284469
Kouvo, S., 2019. A Challenging Agenda for Troubled Times: The Swedish Feminist Foreign Policy. Nordisk Juridisk Tidsskrift, Retfærd, 4, pp.65-88.
Lackenbauer, H., 2016. Med feminism som ledstjärna: svensk utrikespolitik i ny tappning, Världspolitikens dagsfrågor. Utrikespolitiska institutet.
Mohanty, C. T. 2003. Feminism Without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822384649
Millar, J., 2018. Women, poverty and social security. In Women and Social Policy (pp. 52-64). London: Routledge.
Mintz, A. and DeRouen, K. 2014. Understanding foreign policy decision making, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Parisi, L., 2020. Canada’s New Feminist International Assistance Policy: Business as Usual? Foreign Policy Analysis, 16(2), pp.163-180. https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz027
Posel, Deborah. 2004. “’Getting the nation talking about sex’: reflections on the discursive constitution of sexuality in South Africa since 1994”. Agenda, 2 (1): 53-63
Ramphosa, Cyril. February 2018–March 2019. “Speeches by the President of South Africa, Mr. Cyril Ramaphosa.” http://www.dirco.gov.za/docs/speeches/cramaphosa.html
Regeringskansliet, 2015. Utrikesförvaltningens handlingsplan för feministisk utrikespolitik 2015–2018 med fokusområden för år 2016. Utrikesdepartementet. http://www.regeringen.se/informationsmaterial/2015/11/utrikesforvaltningenshandlingsplan-for-feministisk-utrikespolitik-20152018/
Reuters. 2022, October 18. Sweden drops ‘feminist foreign policy’ pursued by previous government. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/sweden-drops-feminist-foreign-policy-pursued-by-previous-government-2022-10-18/
Scheyer, V. and Kumskova, M., 2019. Feminist Foreign Policy. Journal of International Affairs, 72(2), pp.57-76.
Smith, M. 2022. Sweden’s NATO shift and the security dilemma in Northern Europe. European Security Journal, 31(4), 529–545.
Sweden Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019. Sweden’s Feminist Foreign Policy, Long May It Reign.https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/01/30/sweden-feminist-foreignpolicy/
Thompson, L., Ahmed, S. and Khokhar, T., 2021. Defining feminist foreign policy: A 2021 Update. International Centre for Research on Women. https://www. icrw. org/publications/defining-feminist-foreign-policy.
UN WOMEN. “Women Unite: A timeline of women’s activism”. UN Women. n.a. Available at: https://interactive.unwomen.org/multimedia/timeline/womenunite/en/index.html#/
Van Wyk, E., 2019. Exploring education-related sexual equality experiences of LGBQ+ students: an education law perspective (Doctoral dissertation, North-West University (South Africa).
Walfridsson, H. 2023. The Rise and Fall of the First Feminist Foreign Policy: Understanding Sweden’s Unprecedented Policy Approach Between 2014–2022 and the Role of Norm Entrepreneurship
Wallström, M., 2015. Speech at Helsinki University during the Swedish state visit to Finland. 3 March, http://www.regeringen.se/tal/2015/03/tal-vid-helsingforsuniversitet-i-samband-med-det-svenska-statsbesoket-till-finland/
Wolff, J. 2022. The far right and Sweden’s foreign policy direction: Implications of the 2022 election. Scandinavian Politics Review, 18(3), 244–258.
Wikström, P. 2015. Sweden’s diplomatic row with Saudi Arabia: Lessons in foreign policy communication. Diplomatic Affairs Review, 27(2), 142–155.
African National Congress (ANC). 1997. Developing A Strategic Perspective On South African Foreign Policy. http://www.Anc.Org.Za/Docs/Discus/1997/Foreign.Html
Aggestam, K., Bergman Rosamond, A., & Kronsell, A. 2019. Theorising feminist foreign policy. International Relations, 33(1), 23-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117818811892
Aggestam, K., & Bergman-Rosamond, A. 2016. Swedish feminist foreign policy in the making: Ethics, politics, and gender. Foreign Policy Analysis, 12(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1111/fpa.12133
Angevine, S., 2021. Aborting Global Women’s Rights: The Boundaries of Women’s Representation in American Foreign Policy. Politics & Gender, 17(4), pp.799-826. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X20000112
Baylis, J., 2020. The globalization of world politics: An introduction to international relations. Oxford University Press, USA. https://doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198825548.001.0001
Bergman Rosamond, A., 2020. Swedish feminist foreign policy and “gender cosmopolitanism”. Foreign Policy Analysis, 16(2), pp.217-235. https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz025
Billström, T. 2022. Statement on Sweden’s foreign policy direction. Swedish Ministry for Foreign Affairs.
Byron, G. and Örnemark, C., 2010. Gender equality in Swedish development cooperation. Sida.
Carlson-Rainer, E. (2017). Sweden is a world leader in peace, security, and human rights. World Affairs, 180(4), 79-85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0043820018759714
Cold-Ravnkilde, Signe Marie (2019). “Contested Norms In Fragmented Institutions: Gender Equality In South Africa’s Development Cooperation.” Progress In Development Studies, 19 (3): 211–231. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464993419853444
Conway, D. 2008. “The Masculine State in Crisis: State Response to War Resistance in Apartheid South Africa.” Men and Masculinities 10 (4): 422–39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1097184X07306742
Egnell, R., 2017. Feministisk utrikespolitik i teori och praktik. Statsvetenskaplig Tidskrift, 118.
Englander, D., 2011. Protecting the Human Rights of LGBT People in Uganda in the Wake of Uganda’s Anti Homosexuality Bill, 2009. Emory Int’l L. Rev., 25, p.1263.
Enloe, C., 2014. Bananas, beaches and bases: Making feminist sense of international politics. Univ of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520957282
Foster, S. and Markham, S.A., 2023. Feminist Foreign Policy in Theory and in Practice: An Introduction. Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003295617
General Assembly Resolution 1325. “Landmark Resolution On Women, Peace And Security”. (S/Res/1325). August 2008.
Haastrup, T., 2020. Gendering South Africa’s foreign policy: Toward a feminist approach?. Foreign Policy Analysis, 16(2), pp.199-216. https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz030
Haastrup, T. 2013. “Where Global Meets Local: The Politics Of Africa’s Emergent Gender Equality Regime.” In Handbook Of Africa’s International Relations, Edited By Timothy Murithi. New York: Routledge. 103-111. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203803929-13
International Labour Organisation. 2018. Global Wage Report 2018/19: What Lies Behind Gender Pay Gaps International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO
International Labour Organisation. 2018. Global Wage Report 2018/19: What Lies Behind Gender Pay Gaps. International Labour Office. Geneva: ILO
Joachim, Jutta. “What Difference Does A Feminist Foreign Policy Make?”. Clingendael Institute. July 2022. Available At: Https://Spectator.Clingendael.Org/En/Publication/What-Difference-Does-Feminist-Foreignpolicy-Make
Jordaan, E. 2017. South Africa and Sexual Orientation Rights at the United Nations: Batting for Both Sides. Politikon 44 (2): 205–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2017.1284469
Jordaan, Eduard (2017a) “South Africa And Sexual Orientation Rights At The United Nations: Batting For Both Sides”. Politikon, 44 (2): 205-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589346.2017.1284469
Kouvo, S., 2019. A Challenging Agenda for Troubled Times: The Swedish Feminist Foreign Policy. Nordisk Juridisk Tidsskrift, Retfærd, 4, pp.65-88.
Lackenbauer, H., 2016. Med feminism som ledstjärna: svensk utrikespolitik i ny tappning, Världspolitikens dagsfrågor. Utrikespolitiska institutet.
Mohanty, C. T. 2003. Feminism Without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Duke University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822384649
Millar, J., 2018. Women, poverty and social security. In Women and Social Policy (pp. 52-64). London: Routledge.
Mintz, A. and DeRouen, K. 2014. Understanding foreign policy decision making, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Parisi, L., 2020. Canada’s New Feminist International Assistance Policy: Business as Usual? Foreign Policy Analysis, 16(2), pp.163-180. https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz027
Posel, Deborah. 2004. “’Getting the nation talking about sex’: reflections on the discursive constitution of sexuality in South Africa since 1994”. Agenda, 2 (1): 53-63
Ramphosa, Cyril. February 2018–March 2019. “Speeches by the President of South Africa, Mr. Cyril Ramaphosa.” http://www.dirco.gov.za/docs/speeches/cramaphosa.html
Regeringskansliet, 2015. Utrikesförvaltningens handlingsplan för feministisk utrikespolitik 2015–2018 med fokusområden för år 2016. Utrikesdepartementet. http://www.regeringen.se/informationsmaterial/2015/11/utrikesforvaltningenshandlingsplan-for-feministisk-utrikespolitik-20152018/
Reuters. 2022, October 18. Sweden drops ‘feminist foreign policy’ pursued by previous government. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/sweden-drops-feminist-foreign-policy-pursued-by-previous-government-2022-10-18/
Scheyer, V. and Kumskova, M., 2019. Feminist Foreign Policy. Journal of International Affairs, 72(2), pp.57-76.
Smith, M. 2022. Sweden’s NATO shift and the security dilemma in Northern Europe. European Security Journal, 31(4), 529–545.
Sweden Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019. Sweden’s Feminist Foreign Policy, Long May It Reign.https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/01/30/sweden-feminist-foreignpolicy/
Thompson, L., Ahmed, S. and Khokhar, T., 2021. Defining feminist foreign policy: A 2021 Update. International Centre for Research on Women. https://www. icrw. org/publications/defining-feminist-foreign-policy.
UN WOMEN. “Women Unite: A timeline of women’s activism”. UN Women. n.a. Available at: https://interactive.unwomen.org/multimedia/timeline/womenunite/en/index.html#/
Van Wyk, E., 2019. Exploring education-related sexual equality experiences of LGBQ+ students: an education law perspective (Doctoral dissertation, North-West University (South Africa).
Walfridsson, H. 2023. The Rise and Fall of the First Feminist Foreign Policy: Understanding Sweden’s Unprecedented Policy Approach Between 2014–2022 and the Role of Norm Entrepreneurship
Wallström, M., 2015. Speech at Helsinki University during the Swedish state visit to Finland. 3 March, http://www.regeringen.se/tal/2015/03/tal-vid-helsingforsuniversitet-i-samband-med-det-svenska-statsbesoket-till-finland/
Wolff, J. 2022. The far right and Sweden’s foreign policy direction: Implications of the 2022 election. Scandinavian Politics Review, 18(3), 244–258.
Wikström, P. 2015. Sweden’s diplomatic row with Saudi Arabia: Lessons in foreign policy communication. Diplomatic Affairs Review, 27(2), 142–155.
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Jan 12, 2026
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Should Should South Africa Embrace a Feminist Foreign Policy to Respond to Gender Inequality?. (2026). Revue Africaine De Science Politique, 13(2), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.36615/1gxw8e13
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Should Should South Africa Embrace a Feminist Foreign Policy to Respond to Gender Inequality?. (2026). Revue Africaine De Science Politique, 13(2), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.36615/1gxw8e13
