Negotiating Gendered Leadership Positions within African Initiated Christian Churches in Amsterdam
Main Article Content
Keywords
gender, religious citizenship, African Initiated Christian Churches, agency, women leadership, Ghanaian immigrants
Abstract
Our research contributes to the discussion of feminist theorists on how the dominance of women in religious communities is not reflected in leadership positions of women. With the case of African Initiated Christian Churches (AICCs) in Amsterdam, this study investigates the intersection of gender, citizenship, and religion. The concept of religious citizenship provides the analytical tool to examine women-men relationships within immigrant religious communities. The research focuses on gendered leadership within the AICCs in Amsterdam, to enquire into how women exercise leadership in spite of the challenges faced in the AICCs. Data are drawn from in-depth interviews, participant observation, and informal interviews in Amsterdam. This study concludes that women’s access to hierarchical positions is nuanced, as main-line Protestant churches are more flexible compared to Pentecostal/Charis-matic churches. We argue that some women are situated in de facto second-class religious citizenship positions in religious communities which undermine women’s search for equal opportunities as religious citizens. Some women, however, exercise agency to circumvent the structural constraints.
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References
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Mackinnon, Catharine. Towards a Feminist Theory of the State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989.
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Wharton, S. Army. The Sociology of Gender: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.
Adams, Carole E. Women Clerks in Wilhelmine Germany: Issues of class and gender. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Adasi, Grace S. and Dorothy A. Frempong. “Multiple roles of African women leaders and their challenges: The case of the Presbyterian Church of Ghana.” Research on Humanities and Social Sciences 4, no.11 (2014): 63-8.
Asamoah-Gyadu, Kwabena J. “Mediating spiritual power: African Christianity, transnationalism and the media.” In Religion crossing boundaries: Transnational religious and social dynamics in Africa and the new African Diaspora, edited by Afe Adogame and James V. Spickard, 87-103. Leiden: Brill, 2010.
Aymer, Paula. “West African and Caribbean women evangelists.” In Spirit on the Move: Black Women and Pentecostalism in Africa and the Diaspora, edited by Judith Casselberry and Elizabeth A. Pritchard, 109-27. Durham: Duke University Press, 2019.
Baffoe, Michael. “Spiritual Well-being and Fulfilment, or Exploitation by a Few Smart Ones? The Proliferation of Christian Churches in West African Immigrant Communities in Canada.” Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences 4 (2013): 305-16.
Barbalet, Jack M. Citizenship: Rights, Struggle, and Class Inequality. New York: Taylor & Francis Group, 1988.
Bourdieu, Pierre and Loïc J.D. Wacquant. An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Boyle, Paul. “Population Geography: Transnational Women on the Move.” Progress in Human Geography 26, no.4 (2002): 531-43.
Bubeck, Diemut E. Care, Gender and Justice. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995.
Caldwell, Kia L., Kathleen Coll, Tracy Fisher, Renya K. Ramirez, and Lok Siu. “Introduction Collectivity and Comparativity: A Feminist Approach to Citizenship.” In Gendered Citizenships, edited by Kia L. Caldwell, Renya K. Ramirez, Kathleen Coll, Tracy Fisher, and Lok Siu, 1-15. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
Choenni, Chandersen E.S. Ghanazen in Nederland: Een Profiel. Den Haag: Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijkszaken, 2002.
Connell, Robert W. Masculinities. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
Davis, Kathy, Mary Evans, and Judith Lorber (eds.). Handbook of Gender and Women’s Studies. London: Sage, 2006.
Finke, Roger and Rodney Stark. The Churching of America 1776-1990: Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1992.
Frymer-Kensky, Tikva. Studies in Bible and Feminist Criticism. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Gemeente Amsterdam. Amsterdam in Cifers 2013. Gemeente Amsterdam, Amsterdam: O+S Research. http://www.ois.amsterdam.nl/media/Amsterdam%20in%20cijfers%202013/HTML/#/62/ (Accessed 20 March 2019).
Hadebe, Nantondo. Gender, Gender Equality, and the Church: Institute for Contextual Theology. Durban: Institute for Contextual Theology, 2017.
Hobson, Barbara and Ruth Lister. “Citizenship.” In Contested Concepts in Gender and Social Politics, edited by Barbara Hobson, Jane Lewis, and Birte Siim, 23-53. Aldershut: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2002.
Imperatori-Lee, Natalia. “Women Priests or Not, Gendered Theology is Hurting the Church.” America: The Jesuit Review, 6 November 2016. https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2016/11/06/women-priests-or-not-gendered-theology-hurting-church (Accessed 12 July 2021).
Interview: Founding member of the Amsterdam branch of the Methodist Church of Ghana, 6 November 2014.
Interview: Founding member of the Amsterdam branch of the Presbyterian Church of Ghana, 25 September 2014.
Interview: Head pastor of Pentecost Revival, 15 August 2014.
Interview: Head pastor of the Church of Pentecost, 23 October 2014.
Interview: Head pastor of the RFI, 16 January 2015.
Interview: Participant 1 in church, 6 January 2015.
Interview: Participant 2 in church, 23 December 2017.
Interview: Representative of Love Christian Centre, 7 September 2014.
Interview: Representative of the RFI, 5 November 2015.
Jepperson, Ronald. “Institutions, Institutional Effects, and Institutionalism.” In The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis, edited by Walter W. Powell and Paul J. DiMaggio, 143-63. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Jones, Kathleen B. “Citizenship in a Woman-Friendly Polity.” Signs 15, no.4 (1990): 781-812.
Kapinde, Stephen A. and Eleanor T. Higgs. “Global Anglican Discourse and Women’s Ordination in Kenya: The Controversy in Kirinyaga, 1979-1992, and its Legacy.” Journal of Anglican Studies (2021): 1-18.
Knipscheer, Jeroen W., Eleonore de Jong, Rolf Kleber, and Ekow Lamptey. “Ghanaian migrants in the Netherlands: General health, acculturative stress and utilization of mental health care.” Journal of Community Psychology 28, no.4 (2000): 459-76.
Kyei, Justice R.K.O., Elizabeth N.M.K. Yalley, and Emmanuel E.K. Antwi. Field Notes. 2014.
Kyei, Justice R.K.O. and Rafal Smocynski. “Building Bridges or Bonds: The Case of Ghanaian Second Generation Migrants in Ghanaian Churches in Amsterdam.” Romanian Journal Anthropological Research and Studies 6 (2016):13-24. http://www.journalstudiesanthropology.ro/en/no-6-2016/r46/.
Kyei, Justice R.K.O. and Rafal Smocynski. “Religious citizenship and gendered sanctions in the lived experience of second generation Ghanaians.” Social Compass, 66, no.4 (2019): 505-21. 10.1177/0037768619868419.
Kyei, Justice R.K.O, Rafal Smoczynski, and Mary B. Setrana. “Evidence of Spiritual Capital in the Schooling of Second-Generation Ghanaians in Amsterdam.” African Human Mobility Review 7, no.1 (2021): 89-107.
Lawless, Jennifer L. and Richard L. Fox. It Takes a Candidate: Why Women Don’t Run for Office. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Lister, Ruth. “Citizenship and Gender.” In Blackwell Companion to Political Sociology, edited by Kate Nash and Alan Scott, 323-31. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1997.
Lister, Ruth. “Citizenship: Towards a feminist synthesis.” Feminist Review 57, no.1 (1997): 28-48.
Lister, Ruth. Citizenship: Feminist Perspectives. New York: New York University Press, 2003.
Mackinnon, Catharine. Towards a Feminist Theory of the State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989.
Marshall, Thomas H. Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950.
Mensah, Joseph. “‘Doing religion’ overseas: The characteristics and functions of Ghanaian immigrant Churches in Toronto, Canada.” Societies Without Borders 4 (2009): 21-44.
Nason-Clark, Nancy. “Gender Relations in Contemporary Christian Organizations.” In The Sociology of Religion: A Canadian Focus, edited by Warren E. Hewitt, 215-32. Toronto: Butterworths, 1993.
Ndeda, Milfred A.J. “The Nomiya Luo Church: A gender analysis of the dynamics of an African Independent Church among the Luo of Siaya District.” In Gender, Literature and Religion in Africa, edited by Elizabeth le Roux, Mildred A.J. Ndeda, George Nyamndi, F.E.M.K. Senkoro, and Isaac Ssetuba, 49-78. Dakar: Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, 2005.
Oduyoye, Mercy A. Introducing African women’s theology. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001.
Oduyoye, Mercy A., Gender and Theology in Africa Today. Accra: Institute of Women in Religion & Culture Accra, Ghana, 2006.
Oduyoye, Mercy A. and Kanyoro R.A. Musimbi (eds.), The Will to Arise: Women, Tradition, and the Church in Africa. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1992.
Prins, Baukje. “Mothers and Muslima’s, Sisters and Sojourners: The Contested Boundaries of Feminist Citizenship.” In Handbook of Gender and Women’s Studies, edited by Kathy Davis, Mary Evans, and Judith Lorber, 234-50. London: Sage, 2006.
Ralston, Helen. “Citizenship, identity, agency and resistance among Canadian and Australian women of South Asia.” In Women, Migration and Citizenship: Making Local, National and Transnational Connections, edited by Evangelia Tastsoglou and Alexandra Dobrowolsky, 183-200. Aldershot: Ashgate Press, 2006.
Sewell, William H. Jr. “A theory of structure: Duality, agency, and transformation.” American Journal of Sociology 98, no.1 (1992): 1-29.
Soothill, Jane E. Gender Social Change and Spiritual Power: Charismatic Christianity in Ghana. London: Brill. 2007.
Soothill, Jane E. “Gender and Pentecostalism in Africa.” In Pentecostalism in Africa, edited by Andrew Davies and William Kay, 191-219. London: Brill, 2015.
Stark, Rodney and William S. Bainbridge. The Future of Religion: Secularization, Revival, and Cult Formation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
Statistics Netherlands. “Population: Sex, age, migration background and generation,” 1 January 2019. https://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/en/dataset/37325eng/table (Accessed 1 May 2020).
Tastsoglou, Evangelia and Alexandra Dobrowolsky (eds.). Women, Migration, and Citizenship: Making Local, National, and Transnational Connections. Vol. 8. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2006.
Taylor, Charles. “The politics of recognition.” In Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, edited by Amy Gutmann, 12-34. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
Ter Haar, Gerrie. “Strangers in the Promised Land: African Christians in Europe.” Exchange 24, no.1 (1995): 1-33.
Ter Haar, Gerrie. “The African Diaspora in the Netherlands.” In New Trends and Developments in African Religions, edited by Peter B. Clarke, 245-62. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998.
Turner, Bryan S. “Outline of a theory of citizenship.” Sociology 24, no.2 (1990): 189-217.
Van den Bos, Dick. “Kerken in de Bijlmer zijn parels in Amsterdam-Zuidoost.” Reformatorish Dagblad, 27 June 2013. http://www.refdag.nl/kerkplein/kerknieuws/kerken_in_de_bijlmer_zijn_parels_in_amsterdam_zuidoost_1_749924 (Accessed 1 May 2020).
Van Gunsteren, Herman. “Four Conceptions of Citizenship.” In The Condition of Citizenship, edited by Bart van Steenbergen, 36-48. London: Sage, 1994.
Wharton, S. Army. The Sociology of Gender: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.
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Dec 23, 2021
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Negotiating Gendered Leadership Positions within African Initiated Christian Churches in Amsterdam. (2021). African Journal of Gender and Religion, 27(2), 22-44. https://doi.org/10.14426/ajgr.v27i2.1045
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Author Biographies
Justice R.K.O. Kyei, University of Science and Technology, Kuamsi
Justice R.K.O. Kyei is a lecturer in the Department of Sociology and Social Work
Elizabeth N.M.K. Yalley, University of Science and Technology, Kuamsi
Elizabeth N.M.K. Yalley is a lecturer in the Department of Sociology and Social Work
Emmanuel K.E. Antwi, University of Science and Technology, Kuamsi
Emmanuel K.E. Antwi is a senior lecturer in the Department of Religious Studies.
How to Cite
Negotiating Gendered Leadership Positions within African Initiated Christian Churches in Amsterdam. (2021). African Journal of Gender and Religion, 27(2), 22-44. https://doi.org/10.14426/ajgr.v27i2.1045