Southern African Field Archaeology (a.k.a. FIELD) in its revived format is a non-profit, open-access journal currently funded by the Palaeo-Research Institute, University of Johannesburg, the Palaeontological Scientific Trust (PAST), Johannesburg, South Africa, and previously by the Wenner-Gren Foundation.
Creative Commons Attribution CC-BY 4.0 International License
The Holocene Later Stone Age at Charé Rock Shelter, Namibia
Charé rock shelter lies approximately 10 km from the north-eastern corner of the Namib Desert’s Sand Sea. The site was excavated in 1971 by Beatrice Sandelowsky but was never fully published. In 2023, the site was revisited to assess the deposit and its potential for future excavation. This paper presents an updated report on the following: (1) the geological and geomorphological context of Charé; (2) previously recovered material culture; (3) preliminary assessment of the stratigraphy; (4) the material culture recovered from a new test pit; and (5) radiocarbon dates from three charcoal pieces distributed through the exposed deposit. Noteworthy is a Later Stone Age (LSA) lithic assemblage produced primarily on clear quartz sourced from the immediate vicinity. We contextualise Charé within the Namibian LSA with a view to stimulating the investigation of variability in the technological and subsistence behaviours of LSA populations in the region during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene.
Copyright (c) 2026 Dr. Theodore P. Marks, Dr. Dominic Stratford, Dr. George Leader, Ms. Kaarina Efraim, Dr. Eugene Marais https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Later Stone Age of Welgevonden Rock Shelter, Waterberg, Limpopo Province, South Africa
Welgevonden Rock Shelter and its surrounds were used intermittently from the Earlier Stone Age to the Later Stone Age and perhaps by Iron Age farmers. We report on Later Stone Age occupations that probably began in the last few thousand years and persisted until at least 270 years ago. The rich lithic assemblage contains a variety of backed tools and small end scrapers made on quartz, chalcedony and siltstone together with a large assemblage of ground stone. Most chalcedony artefacts were probably manufactured elsewhere, whereas quartz and siltstone lithics were made on site. The excavated rock shelter lacks rock art, but two sites with fine-line paintings are nearby. The north-eastern site has multiple painting events and both sites have paintings of metal artefacts made by Iron Age farmers. Recovered farmer artefacts include Eiland ceramic sherds, one Letsibogo sherd, several iron beads and a fragment of a glass bead. People may have worked with rain near the excavated rock shelter on the hillside which bears several rock cisterns that fill with water after rains. Plant identifications made from seeds and charcoal indicate that the savanna vegetation of the area was essentially the same as it is presently. Spatial segregation of domestic and ritual behaviour, of the kind recorded in some ethnographies, is suggested by the proximity of the occupied (unpainted) rock shelter to unoccupied rock art sites.
Copyright (c) 2026 Lyn Wadley, Wim Biemond, Ghilraen Laue, Rosa Moll, Christine Sievers, Bongekile Zwane https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Southern African Field Archaeology and Publisher inform the Readership of the following corrections made to A cave with agency: Ochre, blood and women at Keurbos 4 by Emily-Jane Vowles & John Parkington DOI: https://doi.org/10.36615/safa.20.3653.2025
Copyright (c) 2026 FIELD & UJ Press https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Revisiting, redating, and reframing the earliest excavations at Paternoster, South African west coast: The archaeology of Fisheries Factory Midden
The Holocene archaeology of the South African west coast is arguably the most studied among other coastal stretches in this country. It has helped to understand the shifts in the lifeways and technology of coastal hunter-gatherers in relation to their environment, climate changes and cultural contact with herder groups. Among the momentous and varied records, the appearance of very large shell middens known as ‘megamiddens’ stands out. They are discontinuously distributed along a ~125 km long stretch of coastline from Lamberts Bay and Elands Bay to Paternoster, and date to ca. 3200-2200 cal. BP. Megamiddens around Paternoster are less studied than the two former. The Fisheries Factory Midden in Paternoster is contemporary with two megamiddens in this locality and is the subject of this paper. This site was excavated by Pete Robertshaw in 1975, and here we expand on his observations to make them directly relevant to the megamidden period. New radiocarbon dates position this site a few centuries before 3265 cal. BP to ca. 2760 cal. BP, with last visits happening from ca. 1990 cal. BP to ca. 625 cal. BP. This study reveals a decrease in bovid foraging efficiency and a concomitant and dramatic increase in the procurement of a number of marine resources from the onset of the site occupation until ca. 2760 cal. BP. Several proxy indicators suggest an increasing occupational intensity at this site as group mobility and foraging range shrank to the coastal margin and adjacent plain during this period. This trend was largely reversed soon after ca. 2000 cal. BP.
Copyright (c) 2026 Antonieta Jerardino, Stephan Woodborne, René Navarro https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Distribution, architectural design and functionality of megalithic structures of the Lake Eyasi Basin in northern Tanzania
We examined megalithic structures in the Lake Eyasi Basin of northern Tanzania to establish the provenance of the construction materials, understand the reasons for the use of particular raw material options and means of transport, as well as to identify the group or groups of people associated with their creation. The findings suggest that the megalithic culture in the Lake Eyasi Basin reflects ancient cultural advancements, ingenuity, craftsmanship, and spiritual significance. These megaliths, which appear in the form of dolmens, stone circles, or burial cairns, serve as enduring markers of bygone eras. They leave an unforgettable imprint on the landscape and our understanding of human history by cultivating a sense of curiosity about the societies that erected them. Therefore, the megaliths in the basin serve as tangible evidence of the builders’ technical capabilities while also providing insight into their social organisation, daily practices, and belief systems. However, the precise purpose behind their construction, whether spiritual, astronomical, or commemorative, and the people who constructed them, continue to be a subject of scholarly debate and exploration.
Copyright (c) 2026 Mr. Albert Samwel Mjandwa, Prof. Elizabeth Kyazike, Prof Julius Lejju Bunny https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Stone Age archaeology of the Riet River dongas, Free State, South Africa
Recent research on the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa’s central interior underscores the pivotal role played by this region in the emergence and cultural evolution of African Homo sapiens. In the central interior, specifically the Grassland and Savanna Biomes of South Africa’s Free State Province, the earliest southern African Homo sapiens fossil originates from the site of Florisbad. Despite this, archaeological data remain sparse, hindering efforts to integrate cultural evidence and hominin fossil records into a coherent regional synthesis. Addressing this gap requires the development of a robust technological and geochronological reference framework for the Free State region. Here, we present results from an archaeological survey of the Riet River donga systems, where erosional incisions into alluvial terraces have exposed extensive lithic assemblages and occasional associated Florisian fauna. Our survey identified archaeological sites spanning the Earlier to Later Stone Age, across 32 dongas. These findings provide an essential foundation for establishing a technological framework, facilitating the development of an archaeological narrative for the open landscapes of the central interior and enabling comparative analysis with other regions across southern Africa.
Copyright (c) 2026 Benoit Longet, Will Archer, Sharon Holt, Michael B. Toffolo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Mapping and excavation of the Plaatberg Mission Precinct, Free State, South Africa
This paper presents the results of an investigation into three structures situated at the centre of the 19th-century Plaatberg Mission Station, in the Free State province, South Africa. First, we locate the study site within the larger Mission Station. Second, excavated data are presented according to spatial context, and then variations within the midden dataset are used to suggest different periods of occupation and missionary presence. Lastly, these findings are interpreted against the broader context of historical events.
Copyright (c) 2025 Amanda Esterhuysen, Tamsin Hunt https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Grave VIa at Oakhurst Shelter: Reporting on a 5000-year-old mistaken identity and associated grave-goods
Almost a century ago, Goodwin excavated Grave VIa at Oakhurst Shelter that later became known as one of the most intriguing Later Stone Age burials in southern Africa. At the time, and in subsequent discussions, it was thought that a man was buried with a bored stone and a grindstone – objects usually seen as women’s things. We now know that the person was buried ~5000 years ago during the mid-Holocene, and that recent genetic work revealed their biological identity as that of a woman. This report reconciles the woman’s bioarchaeological information with a photographic record of her grave goods, most of which have never been published before. It highlights how throughout its long curational history, originally well-contextualised items are now scattered, with some no longer traceable. Alongside the items I was able to record over a three-year period, I provide a list of ‘still missing’ items in the hope that it will lead to their re-location. Brief interpretations of some aspects of the grave goods (such as the bored stone with fish vertebrae, the quartz artefacts, and the ochre and paint paraphernalia) serve to highlight the uniqueness of this grave, and its potential to inform on the woman and the possible worldview of the people who lived at Oakhurst Shelter during the mid-Holocene.
Copyright (c) 2026 Marlize Lombard https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The points from Primrose Ridge: A possible Still Bay workshop on the Gauteng Grassland of South Africa
With this contribution we re-introduce a Middle Stone Age point assemblage from the Gauteng Grassland. Whilst the open-air site can no longer be excavated or dated, an updated interpretation of the Primrose Ridge points has the potential to shed new light on the Middle Stone Age occupation of the Witwatersrand. We apply a fine-grained approach, developed for compiling intra- and inter-assemblage comparative data, to assess how the Primrose Ridge points compare to some other Middle Stone Age point assemblages. We demonstrate that most of the points from Primrose Ridge conform to what can be expected from Still Bay point assemblages in terms of invasive bifacial retouch, lenticular cross sections and semi-circular or pointed butts as originally defined. In situ anvil boulders surrounded by fresh quartz chips recorded in the 1940s, and knapping mistakes provide reasons to think of Primrose Ridge as a workshop or production site for Still Bay-like quartz points. If our interpretation is correct, Primrose Ridge could have been used during the Still Bay phase – in terms of relative chronology – representing the first tentative record of this technocomplex on the Grassland Biome of interior South Africa.
Copyright (c) 2025 Marlize Lombard, Matthew V. Caruana, Anders Högberg https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Preliminary report on the archaeological investigation of the Mara Region, southeast of the Lake Victoria Basin, Tanzania
This study presents findings from archaeological research conducted in the Mara Region between 2023 and 2024 as part of a University of Dar es Salaam field school. It centers on excavations at the Mkirira, Balima, and Nyabekwabi rock shelter sites in the Musoma and Butiama districts within the southeastern Lake Victoria Basin (LVB). Despite its potential for significant discoveries, this area remains one of the most underexplored in the country. The initial survey and excavations uncovered artefacts, including Later Stone Age (LSA) lithics, pottery, beads made from ostrich eggshells, ochre, remains of wild animals, and exotic obsidian. These findings indicate that hunter-gatherers in the basin engaged in hunting and fishing while living in open-air sites and rock shelters. The isolated discovery of a potsherd with a smooth fabric at Nyabekwabi warrants further investigation to determine whether it belongs to the Kansyore tradition or represents a different cultural affiliation. Moreover, the presence of Kansyore and Iron Age pottery traditions such as Urewe and Lanet highlights mobility, technological, and land-use behaviours across the LVB and surrounding regions of Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda, providing crucial insights into human adaptive strategies.
Copyright (c) 2026 Musa Mwitondi, Hassan Kihanzah, Richard Bigambo, Hildegarda Lelio, Jocktan Mtani, Musa Ambassador https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Arthropod presence and their relevance in South African archaeological deposits
Arthropod biology, entomology and forensic entomology are well-established fields in South Africa, yet their application in local archaeological studies is underdeveloped. Here, we discuss the nature of arthropod (mainly insects) presence reporting from excavation and laboratory analyses of archaeological materials in South Africa. We assess the shortcomings of reporting trends, explore interpretive possibilities based on a case study from two Early Iron Age sites (Le6 and Le7) and a Middle Iron Age site (Evelyn) in the Limpopo Province, and suggest the way forward for optimal recording of arthropod presence in archaeological deposits. In addition to presenting a case for entomology sensu lato in understanding past environments, site formation processes, agricultural practices and living conditions, we also highlight the role archaeologists can play in entomological research by gathering present-day data on subterranean arthropod presence and behaviour.
Peer-reviewed concise comparative study, synthesis, or overview
Copyright (c) 2025 Michelle Mouton, Dr. Annie R Antonites, Tharina L Bird, James du G. Harrison https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The stratigraphic context, chronology, and cultural sequence at Little Muck Shelter, southern Africa
Hall and Smith’s (2000) excavations at Little Muck Shelter in the late 1990s uncovered a Later Stone Age sequence purported to span the last 2000 years. They identified four occupation phases that included what they called workshop phases when resident foragers were crafting vast amounts of goods for the purpose of trade with nearby farmers. In return, foragers obtained domestic items, ceramics, metal and glass beads. Despite the site’s distinct occupation horizons, and the potential it offered for understanding forager-farmer relations in the middle Limpopo Valley, no radiocarbon dates were obtained, and its cultural assemblage was not studied in great detail. To address this, a new excavation programme was designed to obtain radiocarbon results for the site’s entire occupation and better understand the stratigraphic and cultural sequence inside and outside the shelter. A large suite of radiocarbon dates from two laboratories are stratigraphically inconsistent, contradictory, do not conform with the regionally established cultural chronology, and must be rejected. To circumnavigate this, here we present a detailed chronological sequence for Little Muck based on changes in the cultural material assemblage. We compare this to the previous excavation results and assess stratigraphic relationships across the shelter. Our results make it possible to associate specific changes at the site with forager-farmer interactions in the middle Limpopo Valley, and demonstrate the continued occupation of the shelter into the thirteenth century CE Mapungubwe phase.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tim Forssman, Chante Barnard, Siphesihle Kuhlase, Stephan Woodborne, Sonja van Zyl https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Sheep before cattle: The ‘colonial’ enterprise in the expansion of herding throughout southern Africa
Copyright (c) 2025 Andy Smith https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A cave with agency: Ochre, blood and women at Keurbos 4
Keurbos 4 is a located on the Rondegat River in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. Rich in painted imagery, it is distinctive for several reasons. Its morphology and position atop a steep incline offer views from inside looking out, but not outside looking in, and afford a level of inaccessibility and seclusion. Within the cave, the rockface is pigmented by a prominent geologically formed red smear and, whilst having little by way of Later Stone Age domestic content, has a notable painted assemblage. The assemblage is predominated by female figures, particularly rows of splayed-legged, squatting or crouching figures shown in the front-facing perspective with one arm extended towards the groin. Alongside these squatting women are an elephant herd, and a series of parallel vertical lines of geologically formed and applied ochreous pigment. Given the location, morphology, geology, and painted contents of the site, we suggest that Keurbos 4 was a place chosen by women for women in the context of ritual and didactic events. Further, we believe the transformation of the space into this place is accompanied by an invoking of agency from the cave, which was far from a passive accident and much more an active participant. Southern African Field Archaeology and Publisher inform the Readership of the following corrections made to A cave with agency: Ochre, blood and women at Keurbos 4 by Emily-Jane Vowles & John Parkington DOI: https://doi.org/10.36615/safa.21.4959.2026
Copyright (c) 2025 Emily-Jane Vowles, John Parkington https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Unearthed potential: Reflecting on the past and shaping the future of Middle Stone Age research in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is home to numerous well-preserved deposits spanning from the Earlier to the Later Stone Age. However, research on the Middle Stone Age has been limited, with most studies conducted during the colonial era. Following independence, economic decline and political challenges have led to sporadic research efforts, leaving Zimbabwe marginalised in discussions on Homo sapiens' origins. As a result, key questions about early human behaviours and adaptations remain unresolved. Renewed Middle Stone Age research could provide valuable insights into behavioural evolution, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of human origins and supporting polycentric theories of our species' emergence.
Copyright (c) 2025 Precious Chiwara-Maenzanise https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Morphological and functional variability of the geometric microlithic backed tools from the late Holocene at Pomongwe Cave (Matobo, western Zimbabwe)
Microlithic backed tools are a key feature of the Later Stone Age late Holocene period in southern Africa. These tools were widely distributed and produced in various geometric shapes and sizes. Despite extensive study and classification, questions remain regarding whether their morphological variability was driven by functional, technological, or stylistic factors. This study investigates the variability of microlithic backed tools from Pomongwe Cave in Matobo, western Zimbabwe, during the Amadzimba phase (ca. 5800 to 2300 BP). We classified the microlithic backed tools into three main morpho-functional categories, which we interpret as reflecting different hafting designs and tool functions. We propose that microlithic backed tools were part of a composite system and likely served as projectile weapons. The creation of specialised tools for specific tasks demonstrates a high level of innovation and provides insight into hunter-gatherer hunting strategies during the late Holocene in Matobo.
Copyright (c) 2025 Precious Chiwara-Maenzanise , Ancila Nhamo, Guillaume Porraz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Archaeological survey of the Modder River dongas, Free State, South Africa
The semi-arid grasslands of the Free State Province of South Africa have produced the earliest evidence of the presence of Homo sapiens in the subcontinent, together with an extensive Pleistocene palaeoenvironmental record based on fossil assemblages. However, the known Middle Stone Age (MSA) archaeological sites in the Free State are limited to a few major localities that cannot be integrated into a unitary narrative, thus hindering our understanding of human cultural evolution in the central interior of South Africa. Here we report the results of a survey of the dongas of the Modder River aimed at documenting new localities embedded within its alluvial terraces. We identified 43 previously unknown archaeological areas spanning the Late Pleistocene to Holocene based on the regional chronology, of which the majority are MSA sites. Four of the latter include artefacts in situ and thus hold potential for excavation and absolute dating by trapped-charge methods. The occurrence of a specific lithic type at six sites along the course of the river highlights a pattern in the occupation of the region during Marine Isotope Stage 5, which confirms the importance of the grasslands of the central interior for the characterisation of the spatiotemporal distribution of human groups in the open landscape during the MSA.
Copyright (c) 2025 Felipe Cuartero Monteagudo, Maïlys Richard, Lloyd Rossouw, Michael Toffolo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Dune, outcrop, and pan sediments from the southern Kalahari Basin: A geoarchaeological case study from the Kgalagadi district, Botswana
Research from the southern Kalahari Basin (previously considered to be of limited Pleistocene archaeological significance) has provided evidence of human occupation. Surveys and excavations conducted in the Kgalagadi District near Tsabong in south-western Botswana have revealed a plethora of archaeological evidence. The region includes geomorphological features, including dunes, low quartzite hills, and pans. Duricrust formations are visible inside the pans. Previous research suggests that the pans form in topographical low points and likely already existed during the Pleistocene, while lunette dunes accumulated from deflated pan sediment during recent drying periods. However, in this region, these features have not been analysed in a geoarchaeological context, which can provide insight into the formation of archaeological sites. We investigated the mechanisms involved in the deposition of pan, dune, and sandy outcrop sediment by applying a multi-method analysis to thirty sediment samples. Analysis of pan samples reveals the presence of mostly intergrade duricrusts, with some calcretes present. Pan sediment containing fragmented ostracod valves in juvenile instars indicates post-mortem transport (taphocoenosis), and along with the diatoms (Campylodiscus sp.), are indicative of a brackish to saline water body. Inner dune samples share more similarities with pan sediments than with the red sand samples, as they contain higher concentrations of calcium oxide and some contain calcite and sepiolite. Particle size distributions change from unimodal in the outcrops and red dunes, to polymodal in the pans, suggesting that runoff during the wet season contributes to site formation. Sediment deflation by wind contributed to artefacts being exposed on the surfaces of the outcrops. This study therefore identifies three main site formation processes, namely deflation, runoff, and various duricrust formations, which provides insights into the environmental and climatic conditions that influenced human habitation in the Kalahari.
Copyright (c) 2025 Inez Faul, Taylor Grandfield, Dr Stefan Dreibrodt, Dr Sarah Mothulatshipi, Phillip Segadika, Dr Chris Green, Dr Marine Frouin, Dr Michaela Ecker https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Strathalan Cave revisited: Stone Age networks and environments at the foot of the Drakensberg, South Africa
The broader Drakensberg is an important region for understanding population dynamics and adaptation between the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. Here, we announce our campaign to re-excavate Strathalan Cave in the northeastern Cape of South Africa. Strathalan Cave sits at the foothills of the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg at the edge of the Great Escarpment of southern Africa. Well-known for its organic preservation, the site is important for understanding the archaeology of the region. People have occupied Strathalan Cave intermittently from ca. 29 000 years ago (ka), so exploring occupational patterns at sites such as these is a valuable means of understanding Stone Age behaviour during glacial Marine Isotope Stage 2 (ca. 29-14 ka). In this paper, we provide the first detailed description of the geological, geomorphological, sedimentary and environmental context of Strathalan Cave and review previous studies conducted on the site and region. We also introduce the goals of our re-excavation project and present a detailed map of the three cavities that make up the Strathalan Cave complex as part of a new, comprehensive, spatial control system established on site. Given the remarkable preservation of organic materials, Strathalan Cave may provide an important and rare source of archaeological and palaeoenvironmental data for this period. Future work at Strathalan will likely contribute to our understanding of the links between settlement patterns and environmental change. This is especially important given that Strathalan sits at the juncture between different environmental and geographic regions.
Copyright (c) 2024 Jerome P. Reynard, Peter Morrissey, Dominic Stratford https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Middle Stone Age fauna from the RS sub-member (MSA I) at Cave 1B, Klasies River Main site, South Africa
Klasies River is an important site for the study of the evolution of Homo sapiens, understanding modern behaviour and human interaction with the environment during the Middle Stone Age. The faunal sample from the RS sub-member in Cave 1B (MSA I), dating to ca. 115 000 years ago and older, was recently analysed. The results indicate that humans were hunting a variety of prey. The most common taxa in the sample are indeterminate medium birds, indeterminate small mammals, rock hyraxes, and indeterminate medium mammals. Based on multiple lines of evidence including the presence of: cultural artefacts, shellfish, tortoises, large mammals, butchery marks, and burnt specimens; and, a lack of carnivore taxa compared to ungulates (as reflected in the low carnivore-ungulate ratio), hyena coprolites and beak damage, coupled with infrequent baboons and the absence of leopards (as reflected in the low leopard index), it is apparent that humans were the main agent of accumulation of the fauna. However, other agents of accumulation such as brown hyenas, leopards and raptors likely contributed some faunal remains, especially of smaller taxa.
Copyright (c) 2024 Shaw Badenhorst, Sarah Wurz, Joel Ezeimo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Ostrich eggshell beads from Little Muck Shelter, southern Africa: First impressions and regional perspectives
Hunting and gathering communities in southern Africa produced ostrich eggshell (OES) beads for personal ornamentation, trade and exchange, and various forms of symbolism. OES beads convey information related to not only technological processes, but also social histories, making them useful tools for investigating these processes in the archaeological record. In the middle Limpopo Valley, hunter-gatherers produced beads from periods that predated the arrival of farmer societies, before ca. AD 150, until the decline of the Mapungubwe capital, AD 1300. Their analysis may therefore lead to insights into local economies, craft activities, trade and exchange, and social roles. However, no study in the middle Limpopo Valley has sufficiently investigated these beads and their status within forager society. In this paper we study the manufacture of OES beads from one of the excavated forager-occupied shelters in the valley, Little Muck. This study is the first of its kind from a hunter-gatherer context in the region. It shows that Little Muck’s beads were standardised but produced in varying frequencies across temporal periods, and made following different production strategies. Use-wear analysis hints that some of the beads were pigmented and possibly altered using heat treatment. As an initial foray into a forager bead assemblage of the region, this study demonstrates the value such an approach may yield, and it aids in guiding future attempts. It also compares Little Muck’s bead assemblage with those from other sites across a much wider region where such studies have taken place. The findings demonstrate similar patterns to other parts of southern and eastern Africa, but also illustrate local shifts in bead production that follow changes in local socio-political dynamics.
Copyright (c) 2024 Siphesihle Kuhlase, Tim Forssman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Granite spalling as a proxy of climate change during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene at Pomongwe Cave, Matobo World Heritage Landscape
There is limited palaeoenvironmental data on Zimbabwe, primarily because the usual proxies used for climatic reconstructions are rarely preserved in the Zimbabwean archaeological record. Against this background, this research seeks to assess the practicality of using granite spalls that occur in the archaeological record as signatures of past climatic changes. We hypothesise that the size of spalls and the rate of exfoliation are dependent upon climatic conditions such as temperature and precipitation. We apply this principle by analysing the size and concentration of granite spalls within the stratigraphy of Pomongwe Cave, to reconstruct the palaeoclimatic conditions that prevailed during its occupation. Our results indicate that the environmental conditions changed through time, and this is reflected by the occurrence of granite spalls of varying sizes and concentrations. However, the results in this paper present a proof of concept that requires further investigation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Thubelihle Rejoyce Mnkandla, Dr. Ancila Nhamo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Jojosi Dongas: An interdisciplinary project to study the evolution of human behaviour and landscapes in open-air contexts
Hunter-gatherer groups conduct most of their activities in open landscapes as they provide drinking water, food, and raw materials, and offer spaces for social gatherings. The remains left behind at such sites allow for unique archaeological insights into the spatial patterning of prehistoric behaviour. The Stone Age record in southern Africa remains best-known from sheltered sites. A paucity of stratified open-air localities precludes understanding the full spectrum of past hominin activities. Here we introduce an interdisciplinary project in KwaZulu-Natal to study the evolution of human behaviour and landscape dynamics during the Pleistocene in the open-air context of a stratified hillslope with sediments exposed in so-called dongas, a landform created by gully erosion. The project encompasses field and laboratory approaches, combining archaeological, geographical, geological, chronometric, and palaeoenvironmental data. After reviewing relevant open-air research in archaeology and geography, we identify the Jojosi Dongas as a promising research area. Our fieldwork results from 2022-2023 demonstrate the high archaeological, geographical, and geological potential of this landscape. Foot surveys found abundant MSA artefacts spread throughout the dongas, one area with ESA tools, but little to no traces of LSA or later material. Most finds lie on the surface with rarer stratified material occurring in exposed profiles. The surface MSA material is characterised by almost exclusive hornfels use, frequent cortical pieces, many large blanks and cores, and rare retouched tools. These features differ markedly from lithic trends observed in well-known shelter sites, likely the result of differences in site function. Based on the nature of the surface assemblages and the presence of a large outcrop of high-quality hornfels, we hypothesise that the Jojosi Dongas may have been a specialised quarry and workshop area. The stratified MSA occupations are the focus of ongoing excavations and further studies will aim to test our preliminary interpretations provided here.
Copyright (c) 2024 Manuel Will, Matthias Blessing, Gunther H.D. Möller, Lawrence Msimanga, Hanna Pehnert, Svenja Riedesel, Greg A. Botha, Christian Sommer https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Female figurines in Sudan from the Neolithic to Meroitic period (4600 BC to 350 AD): A review of their chronological and typological development
Clay female figurines recovered from central and northern Sudan suggest there are cultural similarities between the Neolithic (5000-2800 BC) and Meroitic periods (400 BC-AD 350). Female figurines were recovered from several Meroitic sites, including from the elite cemeteries in el-Bagrawwaya west, the domestic strata in the royal city of Meroe, the Meroitic settlement in Karanog at lower Nubia, and at el-Muweis south of the Meroitic Town. Here, I argue that female forms in the Meroitic period, like some of the Neolithic samples, and their continuation in the archaeological record, show the social importance of females across the cultural history of ancient Sudan. The paper describes the figurines and uses a comparative method to study and reassess the Meroitic female figurines according to their similarities with other samples from the Neolithic and prehistoric periods.
Copyright (c) 2024 Ammar Abdalla https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Woodstock Rocks: From Acheulean to Iron Age in the Waterberg, Limpopo Province, South Africa
The cliff terrace site, Woodstock Rocks, was exploited occasionally by hominins from the Earlier Stone Age to the Iron Age. A small excavation uncovered an Acheulean quartzite workshop with many flakes, but lacking large cutting tools and without organic preservation. Below the workshop site, a ferricrete river terrace cements Acheulean lithics that include large cutting tools, giant flakes and heavy-duty scrapers. A palaeomagnetic study reveals reversed polarity, implying that the ferricrete formation likely took place during the Matuyama Chron and that the lithic assemblage is older than 780 000 years. The cliff face was painted expansively, but both the Bushman and Iron Age farmer art is faded. There are some rare images including a wild dog, a bird and a possible genet. The southern edge of the cliff terrace has Middle and Later Stone Age lithics on the surface and talus slope, as well as grindstones, and ceramics that include Bambata sherds from six vessels. The proximity to the Mokolo River and sources of rocks for knapping, as well as smooth rock walls for painting ensured repeated Woodstock Rocks visits (not necessarily occupation) for generations of Homo sapiens visitors, as well as earlier hominins.
Copyright (c) 2023 Lyn Wadley, Wim, Ghilraen, Chrissie, Carolyn, Michiel https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The fauna from Ratho Kroonkop, a rain-control site in the Shashe-Limpopo Confluence Area, Limpopo Province, South Africa
Rain-control in the Shashe-Limpopo Confluence Area (SLCA) is one sphere in which hunter-gatherer and farmer interaction is archaeologically visible. One avenue of examining this interaction is through faunal analysis. This paper presents an updated taxa list for one of the identified rain-control sites in the SLCA – Ratho Kroonkop. By identifying the taxa accumulated at Ratho Kroonkop and contextualising them using radiocarbon dates and relevant ethnographies, we were able to determine that particular animals were significant to the people who utilised the location as a rain-control site. Additionally, we were able to establish that this significance continued from the K2 period (AD 1000-1220) to the historic period.
Copyright (c) 2023 Kathryn Croll, Shaw Badenhorst, Jerome Reynard, Alex Schoeman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A preliminary report of the excavation at Spitzkloof D rockshelter, Namaqualand, South Africa
This paper describes the first excavations of Spitzkloof D rockshelter located in the semi-arid desert of northern Namaqualand, South Africa. The site is in a dry river valley 30 km south of the Orange River, which currently acts as a lifeline for pastoralists with mixed sheep and goat herds. A surface survey of the site revealed pottery, lithics, domesticate remains, ostrich eggshell (OES) fragments and jewellery, glass beads and iron fragments. The stratigraphy is complex reflecting multiple occupations with six layers consisting of large hearths, ash deposits, and multiple pits, some with potential votive (faunal) offerings in their base. Faunal analysis reveals a broad subsistence strategy consisting of low-intensity sheep-keeping combined with the hunting of wild species found on the landscape today. The presence of Equus zebra, a locally extinct water obligate species, suggests occupation during a climatic period that was more humid than today. Radiocarbon dates from the upper layers confirm a Little Ice Age occupation between AD 1667-1936, when the region was cooler and wetter, and a peak in radiocarbon dates indicates a population pulse in the region. Glass trade beads, iron implements, OES beads, as well as fish remains and a limpet shell, potentially indicate that the people occupying Spitzkloof D were part of an extensive trade/interaction network. Future analysis will include increasing sample sizes through continued excavation, detailed lithic analysis, and further radiocarbon dating.
Copyright (c) 2023 Courtneay Hopper, Genevieve Dewar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Using aerial survey to record new sites in the Keimoes kite landscape of South Africa
The recent identification of kite sites on the Keimoes landscape, in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa, has shed light on how past populations built and utilised low stone structures to funnel and capture game. By strategically identifying and using certain aspects of the surrounding landscape, in conjunction with key design aspects, local groups maximised hunting proficiency. With this contribution, we revisit the Keimoes landscape to continue our search for more funnel sites and to establish whether there is consistency in some of their key design aspects, as identified in earlier publications. We introduce three more kite sites and provide their morphological and landscape details. For the first time, we also demonstrate that some of the kites were purposefully located near rocky outcrops from which construction material could be collected.
Copyright (c) 2023 Matt Lotter, Tim Forssman, Sebastian Bielderman, Marlize Lombard https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Diving into the collections: Analysing two excavated Sotho-Tswana compounds in the Suikerbosrand, Gauteng Province
In this article, we set out to publish the results of extensive excavations conducted in the late 1980s and early 1990s by staff and students of the Archaeology Department, University of the Witwatersrand, at two Late Iron Age stone-walled compounds in the western foothills of the Suikerbosrand massif, near Johannesburg. While these two compounds, Sun Shadow and Boschoek, have been extensively cited in the literature, their data have never been published. Here, we analyse the distribution of their collected artefacts, in conjunction with their field maps, to better understand the spatial organisation of these two Molokwane-style stone-walled compounds. We were also interested to assess the merits of revisiting under-analysed archaeological materials housed in the University of the Witwatersrand’s collections. The results revealed frustrating gaps and shortcomings in the collections, but also shed new light on the social organisation of these settlements. Overall, we feel that the exercise was worthwhile and we encourage similar such studies in the future, allowing researchers to explore the scientific potential of the masses of buried treasure within the university’s collections.
Copyright (c) 2023 Christopher Hodgson, Karim Sadr https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
True colours: Analysing apparent sedimentary divisions in the stratigraphic sequence of Umhlatuzana rockshelter (South Africa) using Munsell-based colour determinations
Copyright (c) 2022 Irini Sifogeorgaki, Gerrit dusseldorp https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0