Pan-Africanism and Feminism: Possibilities for African Women in the 21st Century
Main Article Content
Keywords
21st Century, African Women, Feminism, Liberation, Pan- Africanism
Abstract
The systemic underrepresentation of women in politics, gendered economic inequality, high rates of maternal mortality, gender-based violence and femicide are some of the manifestations of the structures of power that limit African women. In the face of these limitations that hinder African women, questions arise about what can be done. Therefore, this article interrogates the possibilities that Pan-Africanism and feminism hold for African women in the 21st century. Using a qualitative methodology and a critical analytical framework, this paper argues that these ideologies can serve as an entry point to engage in consciousness raising for African women to foster their increased representation in society. It recommends the embrace of a Pan-African feminist thinking to liberate African women from restrictive structures of power that inhibit them from full self-actualisation and gender equality.
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References
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Akpa, A., Amegnaglo, C., and Chabossou, A. 2024. Women’s engagement in agriculture and income inequality in sub-Saharan Africa. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 9, 100888, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.100888
Anderson, H. 2016. Feminisms in Canadian Educational Contexts: A Literature Review. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education 7(2), 37-46.
Armah, A.K. 2010. Remembering the Dismembered Continent: Essays. Penguine: Per Ankh
Asnani, T.W. 2020. Radical Feminism in Eka Kurniawan’s Novel Beauty is a Wound. Journal of Language 2(1), 9-16. https://doi.org/10.30743/jol.v2i1.2477
Atanga, L. 2013. African Feminism? In Gender and Language in Sub-Saharan Africa. Tradition, Struggle and Change, edited by L. Atanga, S. Ellece, L. Litosseliti, and J. Sunderland, 301-314. John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/impact.33.20ata
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Chauke, R. 2022. Girls need ICT Training to thrive in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Mail & Guardian, June 15, 2022. https://mg.co.za/thought-leader/opinion/2022-06-15-girls-need- ict-training-to-thrive-in-fourth-industrial-revolution/
Enyew, B. E., and Mihrete, G. A. 2018. Liberal Feminism: Assessing Its Compatibility and Applicability in the Ethiopian Context. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 10(6), 59-64. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJSA2018.0769
Fergus, C. 2010. From Prophecy to Policy: Marcus Garvey and the Evolution of Pan-African Citizenship. The Global South 4, 29–48. https://doi.org/10.2979/globalsouth.4.2.29
Gebrekidan, F. 2012. From Adwa to OAU: Ethiopia and the Politics of Pan-Africanism 1896– 1963. International Journal of Ethiopian Studies 6 (1/2), 71–86.
Geiss, I. 1967. Notes on the Development of Pan-Africanism. Journal of Historical Society of Nigeria 2(4), 719-740.
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Jones, K., and Budig, M. 2008. Feminist Theory. In: Encyclopaedia of Social Problems, edited by Vincent Parrillo. Sage Publications.
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Kaur, R., and Nagaich, S. 2019. Understanding Feminist Research Methodology in Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3392500
Logan, R. 1962. Historical Aspects of Pan-Africanism: A Personal Chronicle. In Africanism Reconsidered, edited by American Society of African Culture, 90-104. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Maathai, W. 2006. Unbowed. New York: Alfred Knopf.
Maimela, D. 2013. Pan-Africanism of the 21st Century – Challenges and Prospects. The Journal of the Helen Suzman Foundation 71, 34-39.
Malinga, S. 2022. SA tech firms must amplify support for gender equality. IT WEB, April 19, 2022. https://www.itweb.co.za/article/sa-tech-firms-must-amplify-support-for-gender- equality/G98YdqLYeA9vX2PD
Malisa, M., and Nhengeze, P. 2018. Pan-Africanism: A Quest for Liberation and the Pursuit of a United Africa. Genealogy 2(28): 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy2030028
Mama, A. 2019. African Feminist Thought. Oxford Research Encyclopedia, African History. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.504
Mlambo, C., and Kapingura, F. 2019. Factors Influencing Women’s Political Participation: The case of the SADC region. Cogent Social Sciences 5(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1681048
Nangwaya, A. 2016. Pan-Africanism, Feminism and Finding Missing Pan-Africanist Women. Black Perspectives, May 31, 2016. https://www.aaihs.org/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist- women/
OECD. 2021. Towards Improved Retirement Savings Outcomes for Women. OECD https://www.oecd.org/daf/fin/private-pensions/Towards-Improved-Retirement- Savings-
OHCHR. 2016. Women’s Rights in Africa. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/WomensRightsinAfrica_singlepages.pdf
Ojo, T.A., and Olaitan, Z.M. 2024. Fourth Industrial Revolution and Gender Responsive Budgeting in South Africa: Policy Challenges and Alternatives. In The 4IR and the Humanities in South Africa: Perspectives on innovation, power, and potentialities, edited by B. Ndzendze, A. Singh, and S. Timm. AVARSITY Books.
Olaitan, Z.M., and Taiwo, M.B. 2025. Navigating Political Fragility: The challenges of women peacebuilders in militarised political contexts in Africa. African Solutions Journal, 6(1), 1- 23.
Olaitan, Z.M. 2023a. Gender Quotas and the Substantive Representation of Women in African Politics: Case Studies of Botswana and South Africa. Doctoral Thesis, University of Pretoria.
Olaitan, Z.M. 2023b. Feminist Rethinking of the Representation of African Women in Peacebuilding: A Theoretical Analysis. African Journal of Gender, Society and Development, 12(1), 185-207. https://doi.org/10.31920/2634-3622/2023/v12n1a9
Osman, A. 2014. Beyond the pan-Africanist agenda: Sudanese women’s movement, achievements, and challenges. Feminist Africa 19(1), 43-57.
Potekhin, I. 1964. Pan-Africanism and the Struggle of the Two Ideologies. https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/DC/Acn1964.0001.9976.000.019.Oct19 64.7/Acn1964.0001.9976.000.019.Oct1964.7.pdf
Raj, S., and Davidson, M.L. 2014. Ecofeminism: The Pragmatic Posture of Feminism in the 21st Century. International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature 2(8), 1-6.
Steady, F. 2010. An investigative framework for gender research in Africa in the New Millennium. CODESRIA. http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/STEADY.pdf
Tamale, S. 2020. Decolonisation and Afro-feminism. Daraja Press.
Tondi, P.T. 2005. Pan-African Thought and Practice. Alternative Special Edition, 2, 301-328.
United Nations Women. 2022. Leadership and Political Participation. https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation.
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. 2005. Gender equality: Striving for justice in an unequal world. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
Vukoicic, J. 2013. Radical Feminism as a Discourse in the Theory of Conflict. Sociological Discourse 3(5): 33-49. https://doi.org/10.7251/SOCEN1305033V
Adawo, L., Gikonyo, L., Kudu, R., and Mutoro, O. 2011. History of Feminism in Kenya. Spanish Agency for International Development Cooperation (AECID). http://www.nawey.net/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2012/05/History-of-Feminism-in-Kenya.pdf
Adebajo, A. 2021. Pan-Africanism: From the Twin Plagues of European Locusts to Africa’s Triple Quest for Emancipation. In The Pan-African Pantheon, edited by A. Adebajo. Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526156839.00006
Adetula, V., Bereketeab, R., Laakso, L., and Levin, J. 2020. The Legacy of Africanism in African Integration Today. Nordic Africa Institute Policy Notes 2020:9. https://nai.uu.se/news-and-events/news/2020-12-22-the-legacy-of-pan-africanism-in-african-integration-today.html
Adi, H. 2018. Pan-Africanism: A History. London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Africa Barometer. 2024. Women’s Political Participation. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/2024-07/womens-political-participation-africa-barometer-2024.pdf
African Development Bank. 2024. Africa Gender Equality Index 2023 Analytical Report: African women in times of crisis. https://www.afdb-org.kr/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/241108-africa_gender_index_report_2023_v11-%EC%95%95%EC%B6%95%EB%90%A8- compressed.pdf
African Feminist Charter. 2016. Charter of Feminist Principles for African Feminists. https://awdf.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/AFF-Feminist-Charter-Digital-AcA_A_-English.pdf
Ahikire, J. 2014. African Feminism in the 21st Century: A reflection on Uganda’s Victories, battles and reversals. Feminist Africa 19(1), 7-23.
Akpa, A., Amegnaglo, C., and Chabossou, A. 2024. Women’s engagement in agriculture and income inequality in sub-Saharan Africa. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 9, 100888, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.100888
Anderson, H. 2016. Feminisms in Canadian Educational Contexts: A Literature Review. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education 7(2), 37-46.
Armah, A.K. 2010. Remembering the Dismembered Continent: Essays. Penguine: Per Ankh
Asnani, T.W. 2020. Radical Feminism in Eka Kurniawan’s Novel Beauty is a Wound. Journal of Language 2(1), 9-16. https://doi.org/10.30743/jol.v2i1.2477
Atanga, L. 2013. African Feminism? In Gender and Language in Sub-Saharan Africa. Tradition, Struggle and Change, edited by L. Atanga, S. Ellece, L. Litosseliti, and J. Sunderland, 301-314. John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/impact.33.20ata
Bryson, V. 2007. Perspectives on Gender Equality: Challenging the Terms of Debate. In The Future of Gender, edited by Jude Browne. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511619205.003
Chauke, R. 2022. Girls need ICT Training to thrive in the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Mail & Guardian, June 15, 2022. https://mg.co.za/thought-leader/opinion/2022-06-15-girls-need- ict-training-to-thrive-in-fourth-industrial-revolution/
Enyew, B. E., and Mihrete, G. A. 2018. Liberal Feminism: Assessing Its Compatibility and Applicability in the Ethiopian Context. International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 10(6), 59-64. https://doi.org/10.5897/IJSA2018.0769
Fergus, C. 2010. From Prophecy to Policy: Marcus Garvey and the Evolution of Pan-African Citizenship. The Global South 4, 29–48. https://doi.org/10.2979/globalsouth.4.2.29
Gebrekidan, F. 2012. From Adwa to OAU: Ethiopia and the Politics of Pan-Africanism 1896– 1963. International Journal of Ethiopian Studies 6 (1/2), 71–86.
Geiss, I. 1967. Notes on the Development of Pan-Africanism. Journal of Historical Society of Nigeria 2(4), 719-740.
Horn, J. 2020. “The Power of Pan-African Feminism: A Conversation with Jessica Horn.” Interview with Jamiee Swift. Black Women Radicals.
https://www.blackwomenradicals.com/blog-feed/the-power-of-pan-african-feminism-a- conversation-with-jessica-horn
Jones, K., and Budig, M. 2008. Feminist Theory. In: Encyclopaedia of Social Problems, edited by Vincent Parrillo. Sage Publications.
Kamau, N. 2014. Perceptions of Feminism and its effect on voter conscientiousness –A Kenyan Woman’s Perspectives. Heinrich Boel Stiftung Foundation. https://ke.boell.org/sites/default/files/uploads/2014/01/perceptions_of_feminism_and_its_ effect_on_voter_psyche_by_dr._nyokabi_kamau.pdf
Kangas, A., Haider, H., Fraser, E., and Browne, E. 2015. Gender and governance. Applied Knowledge Services. GSDRC. https://gsdrc.org/topic-guides/gender/gender-and- governance/
Kaur, R., and Nagaich, S. 2019. Understanding Feminist Research Methodology in Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3392500
Logan, R. 1962. Historical Aspects of Pan-Africanism: A Personal Chronicle. In Africanism Reconsidered, edited by American Society of African Culture, 90-104. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Maathai, W. 2006. Unbowed. New York: Alfred Knopf.
Maimela, D. 2013. Pan-Africanism of the 21st Century – Challenges and Prospects. The Journal of the Helen Suzman Foundation 71, 34-39.
Malinga, S. 2022. SA tech firms must amplify support for gender equality. IT WEB, April 19, 2022. https://www.itweb.co.za/article/sa-tech-firms-must-amplify-support-for-gender- equality/G98YdqLYeA9vX2PD
Malisa, M., and Nhengeze, P. 2018. Pan-Africanism: A Quest for Liberation and the Pursuit of a United Africa. Genealogy 2(28): 1-15. https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy2030028
Mama, A. 2019. African Feminist Thought. Oxford Research Encyclopedia, African History. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.504
Mlambo, C., and Kapingura, F. 2019. Factors Influencing Women’s Political Participation: The case of the SADC region. Cogent Social Sciences 5(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2019.1681048
Nangwaya, A. 2016. Pan-Africanism, Feminism and Finding Missing Pan-Africanist Women. Black Perspectives, May 31, 2016. https://www.aaihs.org/pan-africanism-feminism-and-finding-missing-pan-africanist- women/
OECD. 2021. Towards Improved Retirement Savings Outcomes for Women. OECD https://www.oecd.org/daf/fin/private-pensions/Towards-Improved-Retirement- Savings-
OHCHR. 2016. Women’s Rights in Africa. https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/WomensRightsinAfrica_singlepages.pdf
Ojo, T.A., and Olaitan, Z.M. 2024. Fourth Industrial Revolution and Gender Responsive Budgeting in South Africa: Policy Challenges and Alternatives. In The 4IR and the Humanities in South Africa: Perspectives on innovation, power, and potentialities, edited by B. Ndzendze, A. Singh, and S. Timm. AVARSITY Books.
Olaitan, Z.M., and Taiwo, M.B. 2025. Navigating Political Fragility: The challenges of women peacebuilders in militarised political contexts in Africa. African Solutions Journal, 6(1), 1- 23.
Olaitan, Z.M. 2023a. Gender Quotas and the Substantive Representation of Women in African Politics: Case Studies of Botswana and South Africa. Doctoral Thesis, University of Pretoria.
Olaitan, Z.M. 2023b. Feminist Rethinking of the Representation of African Women in Peacebuilding: A Theoretical Analysis. African Journal of Gender, Society and Development, 12(1), 185-207. https://doi.org/10.31920/2634-3622/2023/v12n1a9
Osman, A. 2014. Beyond the pan-Africanist agenda: Sudanese women’s movement, achievements, and challenges. Feminist Africa 19(1), 43-57.
Potekhin, I. 1964. Pan-Africanism and the Struggle of the Two Ideologies. https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/DC/Acn1964.0001.9976.000.019.Oct19 64.7/Acn1964.0001.9976.000.019.Oct1964.7.pdf
Raj, S., and Davidson, M.L. 2014. Ecofeminism: The Pragmatic Posture of Feminism in the 21st Century. International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature 2(8), 1-6.
Steady, F. 2010. An investigative framework for gender research in Africa in the New Millennium. CODESRIA. http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/STEADY.pdf
Tamale, S. 2020. Decolonisation and Afro-feminism. Daraja Press.
Tondi, P.T. 2005. Pan-African Thought and Practice. Alternative Special Edition, 2, 301-328.
United Nations Women. 2022. Leadership and Political Participation. https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/leadership-and-political-participation.
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development. 2005. Gender equality: Striving for justice in an unequal world. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
Vukoicic, J. 2013. Radical Feminism as a Discourse in the Theory of Conflict. Sociological Discourse 3(5): 33-49. https://doi.org/10.7251/SOCEN1305033V
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Jan 15, 2026
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Pan-Africanism and Feminism: Possibilities for African Women in the 21st Century. (2026). Pan-African Conversations, 2(1), 99-118. https://doi.org/10.36615/m4zk1586
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Pan-Africanism and Feminism: Possibilities for African Women in the 21st Century. (2026). Pan-African Conversations, 2(1), 99-118. https://doi.org/10.36615/m4zk1586
