Lesser Than Equal? A Feminist Analysis of Hindu Family Law in India
Main Article Content
Keywords
Hindu law, India, women's rights, gender discrimination, patriarchy
Abstract
In India, Hindu family law is often touted as a progressive and gender-just law that ought to be emulated and extended to minority religious communities through a common civil code. Against this backdrop, the present article examines the question of whether Hindu family law in India adequately protects women’s rights and, if law reform is required, what should be the factors guiding it. The article further analyses the status of women within Hindu family law in India from the time of the country’s independence and the law reform measures that have led to advancement in women’s equality rights in recent decades as well as discriminatory provisions that continue to persist through a historical, legal and feminist lens. It argues that further reforms to Hindu family law must be undertaken to realize women’s equality rights, albeit within the larger framework of constitutional norms and international human rights standards, rather than an interpretation/re-interpretation of Hindu religious texts based on dubious claims of a “glorious past.” This includes recognition of trans* and queer relationships within the folds of Hindu law. Moreover, the article argues in favor of applying feminist discourses on formal and substantive equality to the Uniform Civil Code debate to ensure plural family laws are gender-just.
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References
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Dadaji Bhikaji vs. Rukmabai (1885) ILR 9 Bom 529
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Danamma Suman Surpur & Another vs. Amar & Others AIR 2018 SC 721.
Deepika Singh vs. Central Administrative Tribunal 2022 LiveLaw (SC) 718
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Mrs. Githa Hariharan & Anr vs Reserve Bank of India & Anr. (1999) 2 SCC 228.
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Pinniyakkal vs. District Collector & Others, judgment delivered by Justice K.Chandru of the Madras High Court (Madurai Bench) on 1 September 2008 in W.P. (MD) No. 9704 of 2007 and M.P. (MD) Nos. 1 of 2007 and 1 of 2008.
Pathak, Vikas. “The Quest For Our Glorious Past Is How The Right-Wing Woos The People.” Outlook, October 8, 2021.
Rajasekaran, Ilangovan. “In the Name of Honour.” Frontline, March 13, 2020.
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Report on Freedom of Religion or Belief and Gender Equality, A/HRC/43/48 (27 February 2020).
Sakshi Bhattacharya vs. Union of India WP (Civil) No. 1290 of 2019.
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Sarla Mudgal vs. Union of India AIR 1995 SC 1531.
Saroj Rani vs. Sudarshan Kumar Chadha AIR 1984 SC 1562.
Shafin Jahan vs. Asokan K.M. AIR 2018 SC 357.
Shalu Nigam & Another vs. Regional Passport Office & Another 2016 SCC OnLine Del 3023.
Sharma, Kanika. “Withholding Consent to Conjugal Relations Within Child Marriages in
Colonial India: Rukhmabai’s Fight.” 38(1) Law and History Review, (February 2020), 151–175.
Sinha, Chitra. “Images of Motherhood: The Hindu Code Bill Discourse”, Economic and Political Weekly, 42 (2007), 49-57.
Sreenivas, Mytheli. “Conjugality and Capital: Gender, Families, and Property under Colonial Law in India.” The Journal of Asian Studies, 63, (2004), 937-960.
Sreenivas, Mytheli. Wives, Widows and Concubines: The Conjugal Family Ideal in Colonial India. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008.
Srivastava, D.K. “Personal Laws and Religious Freedom”, Journal of the Indian Law Institute 18:4 (1976) 551-586.
State of Bombay vs. Narasu Appa, Mali AIR 1952 Bom.
The Law Commission of India. 174th report: Property Rights of Women: Proposed Reforms under the Hindu Law. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2000.
The Law Commission of India. 257th Report: Reforms in Guardianship and Custody Laws in India. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2015.
The Law Commission of India. Consultation Paper on Reform of Family Law. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs: Government of India, 2018.
The Wire Staff, ‘HC Rejects Lesbian Couple’s Plea for Recognition of Marriage, UP Govt Cites 'Hindu Culture',’ The Wire, April 15, 2022.
T. Sareetha vs. T. Venkata Subbaiah AIR 1986 AP 356
Uma, Saumya. “Wedlock or Wed-Lockup? A Case for Abolishing Restitution of Conjugal Rights in India,” International Journal of Law, Policy and The Family, Vol. 35, Issue 1, 2021, 1-23.
United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), adopted on 18 December 1979, entered into force on 3 September 1981, 1249 UNTS 13.
Vanita, Ruth. and Saleem Kidwai, eds. Same Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History. Gurugram: Penguin Random House India, 2008. (revised edition).
Vineeta Sharma vs. Rakesh Sharma & Others (2020) SCC Online 641.
Agnes, Flavia. “His and Hers.” Economic and Political Weekly. 47 (2012) 10-12.
Agnes, Flavia. “Diverse Personal Laws, Gender Justice and Controversy Over the Uniform Civil Code,” in Melvil Pereira, Bitopi Dutta & Binita Kakati (eds.), Legal Pluralism and Indian Democracy: Tribal Conflict Resolution Systems in Northeast India. New Delhi: Routledge, 2019, 44-66.
Ambedkar, B.R. Dr. Ambedkar Writing and Speeches. Vol. 1, Part 2, Education Department, Mumbai: Government of Maharashtra, 1992.
Anand, Utkarsh. “Conjugal rights make sure couples cohabit or divorce: Centre tells SC”, Hindustan Times, September 6, 2022.
Arumugam Servai vs. State of Tamil Nadu (2011) 6 SCC 405.
Arun Kumar vs. Inspector General of Registration 2019, Madurai Bench of Madras High Court in W.P. (MD) NO. 4125 OF 2019 AND W.M.P. (MD) NO. 3220 OF 2019, judgment delivered on April 22, 2019.
Bhatia, Gautam. The Transformative Constitution: A Radical Biography in Nine Acts. Gurugram: Harper Collins India, 2019.
CEDAW Committee’s Concluding Observations on India. A/55/38 (2000).
CEDAW Committee’s Concluding Observations on India. CEDAW/C/IND/CO/3 (2007).
Chakravarti, Uma. “From Fathers to Husbands: Of Love, Death and Marriage in North India.” In Honour: Crimes, Paradigms and Violence Against Women, edited by Lynn Welchman and Sarah Hossain, 308-331. London: Zed Books, 2005.
Chandra, Jagriti. “Should the Age of Marriage for Women be Raised to 21?”, The Hindu, 4 September 2020.
Chandra, Sudhir. “Rukhmabai: Debate Over Woman’s Right to her Person”, Economic & Political Weekly, (1996): 2937-2947.
Chitkara, Radhika. “Between Choice and Security: Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage in India.” Jurisprudencija: Mokslo darbu zurnalas 21 (2014): 847-865.
Choudhary, Valmiki. Dr. Rajendra Prasad: Correspondence and Select Documents. New Delhi: Allied Publishers, 1987.
Dadaji Bhikaji vs. Rukmabai (1885) ILR 9 Bom 529
Damle, Devendra et al. “Gender discrimination in devolution of property under Hindu Succession Act, 1956.” National Institute of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP) Working Paper Series No. 305, May 25, 2020.
Danamma Suman Surpur & Another vs. Amar & Others AIR 2018 SC 721.
Deepika Singh vs. Central Administrative Tribunal 2022 LiveLaw (SC) 718
Deininger, Klaus., Aparajita Goyal and Hari Nagarajan. “Inheritance Law Reform and Women's Access to Capital: Evidence from India's Hindu Succession Act.” The World Bank: Policy Research Working Paper No. 5338 (2010).
Desai, Mihir. “Flip Flop on Personal Laws.” Combat Law 3: 4, (November-December 2004).
Everett, Jana Matson. Women and Social Change in India (New Delhi: Heritage Publishers, 1979) 141-89.
Government of India. Oral Evidence Tendered to the Hindu Law Committee, Madras: Government of India, 1945.
Harvinder Kaur vs. Harmander Singh Choudhary AIR 1984 Del 356.
India Today Web Desk, “Not our values: Centre opposes plea in HC for recognition of same-sex marriages,” India Today, September 14, 2020.
International Women’s Rights Action Watch Asia Pacific, “The Validity of Reservations and Declarations to CEDAW: The Indian Experience.” IWRAW Asia Pacific Occasional Paper Series No. 5 (2005).
Jaffrelot, Christophe. ‘Nehru and the Hindu Code Bill’, Outlook, August 8, 2003.
Jaising, Indira. “Besides Gender Justice, Triple Talaq Case Was Also About Separating Religion and State in Family Law.” The Wire, August 24, 2017.
Jordan Diengdeh vs. S.S. Chopra AIR 1985 SC 935.
K Puttaswamy vs. Union of India (2017) 10 SCC 1.
Kumar, Vijender. “Matrimonial Property Law In India: Need Of The Hour”. Journal of the Indian Law Institute, 57(4), 500–523.
Lata Singh vs. State of U.P. (2006) 5 SCC 475.
Mahajan, Aniruddha. “In the Name of Honour: Comprehending Honour Killings in India”, Critical Edge, September 26, 2020.
Mary Roy vs. The State of Kerala AIR 1986 SC 1011: 1986 SCR (1) 371
Mehra, Madhu. “Empowering Women or Curbing Rights?” Economic and Political Review. Vol. 57, Issue No. 2, 8 January 2022, 8.
Menon, Madhavi. The Case Against Marriage, 7 November 2020, https://www.article-14.com/post/the-case-against-marriage
Menon, Nivedita. “It isn’t about women”, The Hindu, 15 July 2016.
Mohd. Ahmed Khan vs. Shah Bano Begum AIR 1985 SC 945.
Mrs. Githa Hariharan & Anr vs Reserve Bank of India & Anr. (1999) 2 SCC 228.
Mrs. Sujata Sharma vs. Manu Gupta (2016) 226 DLT 647.
Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India (2018) 10 SCC 1.
Nayar, Madhav. “The ‘Glorious’ History of Hindutva and its Hypocrisies.” Livewire, August 13, 2019.
Ojaswa Pathak & Others vs. Union of India & Others WP (civil) 250/2019 filed before the Supreme Court of India.
Parashar, Archana. Women and Family Law Reform in India. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1992.
Pinniyakkal vs. District Collector & Others, judgment delivered by Justice K.Chandru of the Madras High Court (Madurai Bench) on 1 September 2008 in W.P. (MD) No. 9704 of 2007 and M.P. (MD) Nos. 1 of 2007 and 1 of 2008.
Pathak, Vikas. “The Quest For Our Glorious Past Is How The Right-Wing Woos The People.” Outlook, October 8, 2021.
Rajasekaran, Ilangovan. “In the Name of Honour.” Frontline, March 13, 2020.
Rajkotia, Malavika. Intimacy Undone: Marriage, Divorce and Family Law in India. New Delhi: Speaking Tiger Books, 2017.
Report on Freedom of Religion or Belief and Gender Equality, A/HRC/43/48 (27 February 2020).
Sakshi Bhattacharya vs. Union of India WP (Civil) No. 1290 of 2019.
Sapkal, Rahul. “From Mother to Daughter: Do Equal Inheritance Property Laws Reform Improve Female Labour Supply, Educational Attainments in India?”, Asian Journal of Law and Economics, Vol. 8(1), (December 2014), 1-36.
Sarla Mudgal vs. Union of India AIR 1995 SC 1531.
Saroj Rani vs. Sudarshan Kumar Chadha AIR 1984 SC 1562.
Shafin Jahan vs. Asokan K.M. AIR 2018 SC 357.
Shalu Nigam & Another vs. Regional Passport Office & Another 2016 SCC OnLine Del 3023.
Sharma, Kanika. “Withholding Consent to Conjugal Relations Within Child Marriages in
Colonial India: Rukhmabai’s Fight.” 38(1) Law and History Review, (February 2020), 151–175.
Sinha, Chitra. “Images of Motherhood: The Hindu Code Bill Discourse”, Economic and Political Weekly, 42 (2007), 49-57.
Sreenivas, Mytheli. “Conjugality and Capital: Gender, Families, and Property under Colonial Law in India.” The Journal of Asian Studies, 63, (2004), 937-960.
Sreenivas, Mytheli. Wives, Widows and Concubines: The Conjugal Family Ideal in Colonial India. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008.
Srivastava, D.K. “Personal Laws and Religious Freedom”, Journal of the Indian Law Institute 18:4 (1976) 551-586.
State of Bombay vs. Narasu Appa, Mali AIR 1952 Bom.
The Law Commission of India. 174th report: Property Rights of Women: Proposed Reforms under the Hindu Law. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2000.
The Law Commission of India. 257th Report: Reforms in Guardianship and Custody Laws in India. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2015.
The Law Commission of India. Consultation Paper on Reform of Family Law. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs: Government of India, 2018.
The Wire Staff, ‘HC Rejects Lesbian Couple’s Plea for Recognition of Marriage, UP Govt Cites 'Hindu Culture',’ The Wire, April 15, 2022.
T. Sareetha vs. T. Venkata Subbaiah AIR 1986 AP 356
Uma, Saumya. “Wedlock or Wed-Lockup? A Case for Abolishing Restitution of Conjugal Rights in India,” International Journal of Law, Policy and The Family, Vol. 35, Issue 1, 2021, 1-23.
United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), adopted on 18 December 1979, entered into force on 3 September 1981, 1249 UNTS 13.
Vanita, Ruth. and Saleem Kidwai, eds. Same Sex Love in India: Readings from Literature and History. Gurugram: Penguin Random House India, 2008. (revised edition).
Vineeta Sharma vs. Rakesh Sharma & Others (2020) SCC Online 641.
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Mar 4, 2023
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Lesser Than Equal? A Feminist Analysis of Hindu Family Law in India. (2023). African Journal of Gender and Religion, 28(2). https://doi.org/10.36615/ajgr.v28i2.1485
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How to Cite
Lesser Than Equal? A Feminist Analysis of Hindu Family Law in India. (2023). African Journal of Gender and Religion, 28(2). https://doi.org/10.36615/ajgr.v28i2.1485